1. PHASE TRANSFORMATIONS
ISSUES TO ADDRESS...
• Transforming one phase into another takes time.
• How does the rate of transformation depend on
time and T?
• How can we slow down the transformation so that
we can engineer non-equilibrium structures?
• Are the mechanical properties of non-equilibrium
structures better? 1

2. FRACTION OF TRANSFORMATION
• Fraction transformed depends on time.
Adapted from Fig. 10.1,
Callister 6e.
• Transformation rate depends on T.
Adapted from Fig. 10.2, Callister 6e. (Fig adapted from B.F. Decker and D. Harker, "Recrystallization in Rolled Copper", Trans AIME, 188, 1950, p. 888.)
• r often small: equil not possible! 2

3. TRANSFORMATIONS & UNDERCOOLING
Adapted from Fig. 9.21,Callister 6e. (Fig adapted from Binary Alloy Phase Diagrams, 2nd ed., Vol. 1, T.B. Massalski (Ed.-in-Chief), ASM International, Materials Park, OH, 1990.) 3 3

4. EUTECTOID TRANSFORMATION RATE ~ DT
• Growth of pearlite from austenite:
Adapted from Fig. 9.13, Callister 6e.
• Reaction rate
increases with
DT.
Adapted from Fig. 10.3, Callister 6e. 4

5. NUCLEATION AND GROWTH
• Reaction rate is a result of nucleation and growth
of crystals.
Adapted from
Fig. 10.1, Callister 6e.
• Examples: 5

6. ISOTHERMAL TRANSFORMATION DIAGRAMS
• Fe-C system, Co = 0.77wt%C
• Transformation at T = 675C.
Adapted from Fig. 10.4,Callister 6e.
(Fig adapted from H. Boyer (Ed.) Atlas of Isothermal Transformation and Cooling Transformation Diagrams, American Society for Metals, 1977, p. 369.) 6

7. EX: COOLING HISTORY Fe-C SYSTEM
• Eutectoid composition, Co = 0.77wt%C
• Begin at T > 727C
• Rapidly cool to 625C and hold isothermally.
Adapted from Fig. 10.5,Callister 6e.
(Fig adapted from H. Boyer (Ed.) Atlas of Isothermal Transformation and Cooling Transformation Diagrams, American Society for Metals, 1997, p. 28.) 7

8. PEARLITE MORPHOLOGY Two cases: • Ttransf just below TE
--Larger T: diffusion is faster
--Pearlite is coarser.
• Ttransf well below TE
--Smaller T: diffusion is slower
--Pearlite is finer.
Adapted from Fig (a) and (b),Callister 6e. (Fig from R.M. Ralls et al., An Introduction to Materials Science and Engineering, p. 361, John Wiley and Sons, Inc., New York, 1976.) 8

9. NON-EQUIL TRANSFORMATION PRODUCTS: Fe-C
• Bainite:
--a lathes (strips) with long
rods of Fe3C
--diffusion controlled.
• Isothermal Transf. Diagram
(Adapted from Fig. 10.8, Callister, 6e. (Fig from Metals Handbook, 8th ed.,
Vol. 8, Metallography, Structures, and Phase Diagrams, American Society for Metals, Materials Park, OH, 1973.)
Adapted from Fig. 10.9,Callister 6e.
(Fig adapted from H. Boyer (Ed.) Atlas of Isothermal Transformation and Cooling Transformation Diagrams, American Society for Metals, 1997, p. 28.) 9

10. OTHER PRODUCTS: Fe-C SYSTEM (1)
• Spheroidite:
--a crystals with spherical Fe3C
--diffusion dependent.
--heat bainite or pearlite for long times
--reduces interfacial area (driving force)
• Isothermal Transf. Diagram
(Adapted from Fig , Callister, 6e. (Fig copyright United States Steel Corporation, 1971.)
Adapted from Fig. 10.9,Callister 6e.
(Fig adapted from H. Boyer (Ed.) Atlas of Isothermal Transformation and Cooling Transformation Diagrams, American Society for Metals, 1997, p. 28.) 10

11. OTHER PRODUCTS: Fe-C SYSTEM (2)
• Martensite:
--g(FCC) to Martensite (BCT)
(Adapted from Fig , Callister, 6e.
• Isothermal Transf. Diagram
(Adapted from Fig , Callister, 6e. (Fig courtesy United States Steel Corporation.)
Adapted from Fig , Callister 6e.
• g to M transformation..
-- is rapid!
-- % transf. depends on T only. 11

12. COOLING EX: Fe-C SYSTEM (1)
Adapted from Fig , Callister 6e. 12

13. COOLING EX: Fe-C SYSTEM (2)
Adapted from Fig , Callister 6e. 13

14. COOLING EX: Fe-C SYSTEM (3)
Adapted from Fig , Callister 6e. 14

15. MECHANICAL PROP: Fe-C SYSTEM (1)
Adapted from Fig. 9.27,Callister
6e. (Fig courtesy Republic Steel Corporation.)
Adapted from Fig. 9.30,Callister 6e. (Fig copyright 1971 by United States Steel Corporation.)
Adapted from Fig , Callister 6e. (Fig based on data from Metals Handbook: Heat Treating, Vol. 4, 9th ed., V. Masseria (Managing Ed.), American Society for Metals, 1981, p. 9.) 15

16. MECHANICAL PROP: Fe-C SYSTEM (2)
Adapted from Fig , Callister 6e. (Fig based on data from Metals Handbook: Heat Treating, Vol. 4, 9th ed., V. Masseria (Managing Ed.), American Society for Metals, 1981, pp. 9 and 17.) 16

17. MECHANICAL PROP: Fe-C SYSTEM (3)
• Fine Pearlite vs Martensite:
Adapted from Fig , Callister 6e. (Fig adapted from Edgar C. Bain, Functions of the Alloying Elements in Steel, American Society for Metals, 1939, p. 36; and R.A. Grange, C.R. Hribal, and L.F. Porter, Metall. Trans. A, Vol. 8A, p )
• Hardness: fine pearlite << martensite. 17

18. TEMPERING MARTENSITE • reduces brittleness of martensite,
• reduces internal stress caused by quenching.
Adapted from Fig , Callister 6e. (Fig adapted from Fig. furnished courtesy of Republic Steel Corporation.)
Adapted from Fig , Callister 6e. (Fig copyright by United States Steel Corporation, 1971.) 18

19. SUMMARY: PROCESSING OPTIONS
Adapted from Fig , Callister 6e. 19

20. PRECIPITATION HARDENING
• Particles impede dislocations.
• Ex: Al-Cu system
• Procedure:
--Pt A: solution heat treat
(get a solid solution)
--Pt B: quench to room temp.
--Pt C: reheat to nucleate
small q crystals within
a crystals.
• Other precipitation
systems:
• Cu-Be
• Cu-Sn
• Mg-Al
Adapted from Fig , Callister 6e. (Fig adapted from J.L. Murray, International Metals Review 30, p.5, 1985.)
Adapted from Fig , Callister 6e. 20

21. PRECIPITATE EFFECT ON TS, %EL
• 2014 Al Alloy:
• TS peaks with
precipitation time.
• Increasing T accelerates
process.
• %EL reaches minimum
with precipitation time.
Adapted from Fig (a) and (b), Callister 6e. (Fig adapted from Metals Handbook: Properties and Selection: Nonferrous Alloys and Pure Metals, Vol. 2, 9th ed., H. Baker (Managing Ed.), American Society for Metals, p. 41.) 21

22. SIMULATION: DISLOCATION MOTION PEAK AGED MATERIAL
--avg. particle size = 64b
--closer spaced particles
efficiently stop dislocations.
Simulation courtesy
of Volker Mohles,
Institut für Materialphysik der Universitåt, Münster, Germany (
uni-munster.de/physik
/MP/mohles/). Used with permission. 22

23. SIMULATION: DISLOCATION MOTION OVERAGED MATERIAL
--avg. particle size = 361b
--more widely spaced
particles not as effective.
Simulation courtesy
of Volker Mohles,
Institut für Materialphysik der Universitåt, Münster, Germany (
uni-munster.de/physik
/MP/mohles/). Used with permission. 23

24. STRENGTHENING STRATEGY 3: PRECIPITATION STRENGTHENING
• Hard precipitates are difficult to shear.
Ex: Ceramics in metals (SiC in Iron or Aluminum).
• Result: 24

25. SIMULATION: PRECIPITATION STRENGTHENING
• View onto slip plane of Nimonic PE16
• Precipitate volume fraction: 10%
• Average precipitate size: 64 b (b = 1 atomic slip distance)
Simulation courtesy of Volker Mohles, Institut für Materialphysik der Universitåt, Münster, Germany (
/MP/mohles/). Used with permission. 25

26. APPLICATION: PRECIPITATION STRENGTHENING
• Internal wing structure on Boeing 767
Adapted from Fig. 11.0, Callister 5e.
(Fig is courtesy of G.H. Narayanan and A.G. Miller, Boeing Commercial Airplane Company.)
• Aluminum is strengthened with precipitates formed
by alloying.
1.5mm
Adapted from Fig , Callister 6e.
(Fig is courtesy of G.H. Narayanan and A.G. Miller, Boeing Commercial Airplane Company.) 26