1. Chapter 13: Managerial Accounting Concepts and Decision-Making Support
Cornerstones of
Financial and Managerial Accounting, 2e
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2. Go Utes In this chapter you will:
Explain the meaning of managerial accounting and contrast it to financial accounting.
Identify and explain the current focus of managerial accounting and the role of managerial accountants in an organization.
Explain the meaning of cost and how costs are assigned to products and services.
In addition, information presented in Chapter 13 will help you:
Define the various costs of manufacturing products and providing services as well as selling and administration.
Prepare income statements for manufacturing and service organizations.
Explain the importance of ethical behavior for managers and managerial accountants.
© 2012 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. May not be copied, scanned, or duplicated, in whole or in part, except for use as permitted in a license distributed with a certain product or service or otherwise on a password-protected website for classroom use.

3. Learning Objectives
Explain the meaning of managerial accounting and contrast it to financial accounting.
Identify and explain the current focus of managerial accounting and the role of managerial accountants in an organization.
Explain the meaning of cost and how costs are assigned to products and services.
Define the various costs of manufacturing products and providing services as well as selling and administration.
Prepare income statements for manufacturing and service organizations.
Explain the importance of ethical behavior for managers and managerial accountants.
In this chapter you will:
Explain the meaning of managerial accounting and contrast it to financial accounting.
Identify and explain the current focus of managerial accounting and the role of managerial accountants in an organization.
Explain the meaning of cost and how costs are assigned to products and services.
In addition, information presented in Chapter 13 will help you:
Define the various costs of manufacturing products and providing services as well as selling and administration.
Prepare income statements for manufacturing and service organizations.
Explain the importance of ethical behavior for managers and managerial accountants.
© 2012 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. May not be copied, scanned, or duplicated, in whole or in part, except for use as permitted in a license distributed with a certain product or service or otherwise on a password-protected website for classroom use.

4. Manufacturing Income Statement
Revenue $50, %
Less: Cost of Goods Sold
Total Cost of Goods Sold $28, %
Gross Margin $22, %
Selling, General Admin Expenses $20, %
Operating Income $ 2, %
In this chapter you will:
Explain the meaning of managerial accounting and contrast it to financial accounting.
Identify and explain the current focus of managerial accounting and the role of managerial accountants in an organization.
Explain the meaning of cost and how costs are assigned to products and services.
In addition, information presented in Chapter 13 will help you:
Define the various costs of manufacturing products and providing services as well as selling and administration.
Prepare income statements for manufacturing and service organizations.
Explain the importance of ethical behavior for managers and managerial accountants.

5. Manufacturing Income Statement
Revenue units $50 per unit $50,000
Less: Cost of Goods Sold
Direct Materials 1000 units $10 per unit $10,000
Direct Labor units $10 per unit $10,000
Overhead units $ 8 per unit $ 8,000
Total Cost of Goods Sold $28,000
Gross Margin $22,000
Selling, General & Administrative Expenses $20,000
Operating Income $ 2,000
In this chapter you will:
Explain the meaning of managerial accounting and contrast it to financial accounting.
Identify and explain the current focus of managerial accounting and the role of managerial accountants in an organization.
Explain the meaning of cost and how costs are assigned to products and services.
In addition, information presented in Chapter 13 will help you:
Define the various costs of manufacturing products and providing services as well as selling and administration.
Prepare income statements for manufacturing and service organizations.
Explain the importance of ethical behavior for managers and managerial accountants.

6. The Meaning and Purpose of Managerial Accounting1
The Meaning and Purpose of Managerial Accounting
Managerial accounting is the provision of accounting information for a company’s internal users.
Unlike financial accounting, managerial accounting is not bound by any formal criteria such as generally accepted accounting principles (GAAP).
To accomplish its purpose, managerial accounting has three broad objectives: 1
To provide information for planning the organization’s actions. 2
To provide information for controlling the organization’s actions. 3
To provide information for making effective decisions.
What is managerial accounting? Quite simply, it is the provision of accounting information for a company’s internal users. Managerial accounting is the firm’s internal accounting system and is designed to support the information needs of managers. Unlike financial accounting, managerial accounting is not bound by any formal criteria such as generally accepted accounting principles (GAAP). Managerial accounting has three broad objectives: (1) To provide information for planning the organization’s actions, (2) To provide information for controlling the organization’s actions, and (3) To provide information for making effective decisions.
© 2012 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. May not be copied, scanned, or duplicated, in whole or in part, except for use as permitted in a license distributed with a certain product or service or otherwise on a password-protected website for classroom use.

7. Information Needs of Managers and Other Users1
Information Needs of Managers and Other Users
Managerial accounting information is needed by a number of individuals. In particular, managers and empowered workers need comprehensive, up-to-date information for the following activities:
Planning
Controlling
Decision making
Managerial accounting information is needed by a number of individuals. In particular, managers and empowered workers need comprehensive, up-to-date information for the following activities:
Planning
Controlling
Decision making
© 2012 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. May not be copied, scanned, or duplicated, in whole or in part, except for use as permitted in a license distributed with a certain product or service or otherwise on a password-protected website for classroom use.

8. Supplier Evaluation Program1
Planning
The detailed formulation of action to achieve a particular end is the management activity called planning.
Example
Improve Quality
Setting objectives
The detailed formulation of action to achieve a particular end is the management activity called planning. Planning requires setting objectives and identifying methods to achieve those objectives. For example, a firm may set the objective of improving quality, which will lead to both short-term and long-term profitability. Product quality can lead to decreases in rework and a reduction in scrap, a decrease in customer complaints and warranty work, and a reduction in resources assigned to inspection. Methods to achieve the objective could include a supplier evaluation program.
Supplier Evaluation Program
Identifying methods to achieve those objectives
© 2012 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. May not be copied, scanned, or duplicated, in whole or in part, except for use as permitted in a license distributed with a certain product or service or otherwise on a password-protected website for classroom use.

9. 1
Controlling
The managerial activity of monitoring a plan’s implementation and taking corrective action as needed is referred to as controlling.
Compare
Actual Performance
Expected Performance
Planning is only half the battle. Once a plan is created, it must be implemented and monitored. The managerial activity of monitoring a plan’s implementation and taking corrective action as needed is referred to as controlling. Control is usually achieved by comparing actual performance with expected performance.
© 2012 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. May not be copied, scanned, or duplicated, in whole or in part, except for use as permitted in a license distributed with a certain product or service or otherwise on a password-protected website for classroom use.

10. 1
Decision Making
The process of choosing among competing alternatives is called decision making.
Competing Alternative #1
Competing Alternative #2
??????????
The process of choosing among competing alternatives is called decision making. This managerial function is intertwined with planning and control in that a manager cannot successfully plan or control the organization’s actions without making decisions regarding competing alternatives.
© 2012 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. May not be copied, scanned, or duplicated, in whole or in part, except for use as permitted in a license distributed with a certain product or service or otherwise on a password-protected website for classroom use.

11. You Decide What Constitutes Managerial Accounting Information1
You Decide What Constitutes Managerial Accounting Information
What constitutes managerial accounting information? In this example, you decide. You are a Costco executive who has been chosen to decide whether or not the company should continue its policy of sourcing its finest coffee from Rwanda. What types of information should you consider as you decide how best to structure and analyze this important long-term strategic decision? What challenges do you expect to face in making this decision?
© 2012 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. May not be copied, scanned, or duplicated, in whole or in part, except for use as permitted in a license distributed with a certain product or service or otherwise on a password-protected website for classroom use.

12. Financial Accounting and Managerial Accounting1
Financial Accounting and Managerial Accounting
Financial accounting is primarily concerned with producing information for external users, including investors, creditors, customers, suppliers, government agencies, and labor unions.
Financial accounting’s orientation is historical and is used for investment decisions, stewardship evaluation, monitoring activity, and regulatory measures.
Financial statements must conform to certain rules and conventions defined by agencies like the
Securities and Exchange Commission (SEC)
Financial Accounting Standards Board (FASB)
International Accounting Standards Board (IASB)
There are two basic kinds of accounting information systems: financial accounting and managerial accounting. Financial Accounting is primarily concerned with producing information for external users, including investors, creditors, customers, suppliers, government agencies, and labor unions. Financial accounting’s orientation is historical and is used for investment decisions, stewardship evaluation, monitoring activity, and regulatory measures. Financial statements must conform to certain rules and conventions defined by agencies like the Securities and Exchange Commission (SEC), the Financial Accounting Standards Board (FASB), and the International Accounting Standards Board (IASB).
© 2012 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. May not be copied, scanned, or duplicated, in whole or in part, except for use as permitted in a license distributed with a certain product or service or otherwise on a password-protected website for classroom use.

13. Financial Accounting and Managerial Accounting (continued)1
Financial Accounting and Managerial Accounting (continued)
Managerial Accounting produces information for internal users, such as managers, executives, and workers.
Managerial accounting identifies, collects, measures, classifies, and reports financial and nonfinancial information that is useful to internal users in planning, controlling, and decision-making.
Comparison
Managerial accounting could be properly called internal accounting.
Financial accounting could be called external accounting.
Managerial Accounting produces information for internal users, such as managers, executives, and workers. Specifically, managerial accounting identifies, collects, measures, classifies, and reports financial and nonfinancial information that is useful to internal users in planning, controlling, and decision-making. Thus, managerial accounting could be properly called internal accounting, and financial accounting could be called external accounting.
© 2012 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. May not be copied, scanned, or duplicated, in whole or in part, except for use as permitted in a license distributed with a certain product or service or otherwise on a password-protected website for classroom use.

14. Comparison of Financial and Managerial Accounting1
Comparison of Financial and Managerial Accounting
Financial Accounting
Managerial Accounting
Externally focused
Internally focused
Must follow externally imposed rules
No mandatory rules
Objective financial information
Financial and information; subjective information possible nonfinancial
Historical orientation
Emphasis on the future
Information about the firm as a whole
Internal evaluation and decisions based on very detailed information
More self-contained
Broad, multidisciplinary
When comparing financial accounting to managerial accounting, several differences can be identified as far as (1) targeted users, (2) restrictions on inputs and processes, (3) type of information, (4) time orientation, (5) degree of aggregation, and (6) breadth of topics. The accounting system should be designed to provide both financial and managerial accounting information.
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15. Comparison of Financial and Managerial Accounting (continued)1
Comparison of Financial and Managerial Accounting (continued)
The key point is flexibility—
the accounting system should be able to supply different information for different purposes.
The key point is flexibility—the accounting system should be able to supply different information for different purposes.
© 2012 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. May not be copied, scanned, or duplicated, in whole or in part, except for use as permitted in a license distributed with a certain product or service or otherwise on a password-protected website for classroom use.

16. Current Focus of Managerial Accounting2
Current Focus of Managerial Accounting
The business environment in which companies operate has changed dramatically over the past several decades.
As a result, effective managerial accounting systems also have changed in order to provide information that helps improve companies’ planning, control, and decision-making activities.
Several important uses of managerial accounting resulting from these advances include: (1) new methods of estimating product and service cost and profitability, (2) understanding customer orientation, (3) evaluating the business from a cross-functional perspective, and (4) providing information useful in improving total quality.
The business environment in which companies operate has changed dramatically over the past several decades. As a result, effective managerial accounting systems also have changed in order to provide information that helps improve companies’ planning, control, and decision-making activities.
Several important uses of managerial accounting resulting from these advances include new methods of estimating product and service cost and profitability, understanding customer orientation, evaluating the business from a cross-functional perspective, and providing information useful in improving total quality.
© 2012 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. May not be copied, scanned, or duplicated, in whole or in part, except for use as permitted in a license distributed with a certain product or service or otherwise on a password-protected website for classroom use.

17. New Methods of Costing Products and Services2
New Methods of Costing Products and Services
Today’s companies need focused, accurate information on the cost of the products and services they produce.
Activity-based costing (ABC) is a more detailed approach to determining the cost of goods and services.
ABC improves costing accuracy by emphasizing the cost of the many activities or tasks that must be done to produce a product or offer a service.
Process-value analysis focuses on the way in which companies create value for customers.
The objective is to find ways to perform necessary activities more efficiently and to eliminate those that do not create customer value.
Today’s companies need focused, accurate information on the cost of the products and services they produce. Activity-based costing (ABC) is a more detailed approach to determining the cost of
goods and services. ABC improves costing accuracy by emphasizing the cost of the many activities or tasks that must be done to produce a product or offer a service. Process-value analysis focuses on the way in which companies create value for customers. The objective is to find ways to perform necessary activities more efficiently and to eliminate those that do not create customer value.
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18. 2
Customer Orientation
Customer value is a key focus because firms can establish a competitive advantage by creating better customer value for the same or lower cost than competitors or creating equivalent value for lower cost than that of competitors.
Customer value is the difference between what a customer receives and what the customer gives up when buying a product or service.
Customer value is a key focus because firms can establish a competitive advantage by creating better customer value for the same or lower cost than competitors or creating equivalent value for lower cost than that of competitors. Customer value is the difference between what a customer receives and what the customer gives up when buying a product or service.
© 2012 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. May not be copied, scanned, or duplicated, in whole or in part, except for use as permitted in a license distributed with a certain product or service or otherwise on a password-protected website for classroom use.

19. Strategic Positioning2
Strategic Positioning
Effective cost information can help the company identify strategies that increase customer value. This is typically done through a couple of general strategies:
Cost leadership: The objective of the cost leadership strategy is to provide the same or better value to customers at a lower cost than competitors.
Superior products through differentiation: A differentiation strategy strives to increase customer value by providing something to customers not provided by competitors.
Effective cost information can help the company identify strategies that increase customer value. This is typically done through a couple of general strategies: (1) Cost Leadership: The objective of the cost leadership strategy is to provide the same or better value to customers at a lower cost than competitors. (2) Superior products through differentiation: A differentiation strategy strives to increase customer value by providing something to customers not provided by competitors.
© 2012 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. May not be copied, scanned, or duplicated, in whole or in part, except for use as permitted in a license distributed with a certain product or service or otherwise on a password-protected website for classroom use.

20. 2
Value Chain
Successful pursuit of cost leadership and/or differentiation strategies requires an understanding of a firm’s value chain.
The value chain is the set of activities required to design, develop, produce, market, and deliver products and services, as well as provide support services to customers.
Successful pursuit of cost leadership and/or differentiation strategies requires an understanding of a firm’s value chain. The value chain is the set of activities required to design, develop, produce, market, and deliver products and services, as well as provide support services to customers.
© 2012 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. May not be copied, scanned, or duplicated, in whole or in part, except for use as permitted in a license distributed with a certain product or service or otherwise on a password-protected website for classroom use.

21. Cross-Functional Perspective2
Cross-Functional Perspective
In managing the value chain, a managerial accountant must understand and measure many functions of the business.
Contemporary approaches to costing may include initial design and engineering costs, as well as manufacturing costs, and the costs of distribution, sales, and service.
In managing the value chain, a managerial accountant must understand and measure many functions of the business. Contemporary approaches to costing may include initial design and engineering costs, as well as manufacturing costs, and the costs of distribution, sales, and service.
© 2012 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. May not be copied, scanned, or duplicated, in whole or in part, except for use as permitted in a license distributed with a certain product or service or otherwise on a password-protected website for classroom use.

22. Total Quality Management2
Continuous improvement is the continual search for ways to increase the overall efficiency and productivity of activities by reducing waste, increasing quality, and managing costs.
Continuous improvement is fundamental for establishing excellence.
A philosophy of total quality management, in which manufacturers strive to create an environment that will enable workers to manufacture perfect (zero-defect) products, has created a demand for a managerial accounting system that provides information about quality.
Continuous improvement is the continual search for ways to increase the overall efficiency and productivity of activities by reducing waste, increasing quality, and managing costs. Managerial accounting information about the costs of products, customers, processes, and other objects of management interest can be the basis for identifying problems and alternative solutions.
Continuous improvement is fundamental for establishing excellence. A philosophy of total quality management, in which manufacturers strive to create an environment that will enable workers to manufacture perfect (zero-defect) products, has replaced the ‘‘acceptable quality’’ attitudes of the past. This emphasis on quality has also created a demand for a managerial accounting system that provides information about quality, including quality cost measurement and reporting for both manufacturing and service industries.
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23. Total Quality Management (continued)2
For example, many companies attempt to increase organizational value by eliminating wasteful activities that exist throughout the value chain.
This has led to a change in accounting, referred to as lean accounting, which organizes costs according to the value chain and collects both financial and nonfinancial information.
A more recent charge of managerial accountants is to help carry out the company’s enterprise risk management (ERM) approach.
ERM is a formal way for managerial accountants to identify and respond to the most important threats and business opportunities facing the organization.
For example, many companies attempt to increase organizational value by eliminating wasteful activities that exist throughout the value chain. This has led to a change in accounting, referred to as lean accounting, which organizes costs according to the value chain and collects both financial and nonfinancial information.
A more recent charge of managerial accountants is to help carry out the company’s enterprise risk management (ERM) approach. ERM is a formal way for managerial accountants to identify and respond to the most important threats and business opportunities facing the organization.
© 2012 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. May not be copied, scanned, or duplicated, in whole or in part, except for use as permitted in a license distributed with a certain product or service or otherwise on a password-protected website for classroom use.

24. The Meaning and Uses of Cost3
The Meaning and Uses of Cost
One of the most important tasks of managerial accounting is to determine the cost of products, services, customers, and other items of interest to managers.
Therefore, we need to understand the meaning of cost and the ways in which costs can be used to make decisions, both for small entrepreneurial businesses and large international businesses.
Cost is the amount of cash or cash equivalent sacrificed for goods and/or services that are expected to bring a current or future benefit to the organization.
One of the most important tasks of managerial accounting is to determine the cost of products, services, customers, and other items of interest to managers. Therefore, we need to understand the meaning of cost and the ways in which costs can be used to make decisions, both for small entrepreneurial businesses and large international businesses. Cost is the amount of cash or cash equivalent sacrificed for goods and/or services that are expected to bring a current or future benefit to the organization.
© 2012 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. May not be copied, scanned, or duplicated, in whole or in part, except for use as permitted in a license distributed with a certain product or service or otherwise on a password-protected website for classroom use.

25. The Meaning and Uses of Cost (continued)3
The Meaning and Uses of Cost (continued)
As costs are used up in the production of revenues, they are said to expire. Expired costs are called expenses.
On the income statement, expenses are deducted from revenues to determine income (also called profit).
We can look more closely at the relationship between cost and revenue by focusing on the units sold. The revenue per unit is called price.
As costs are used up in the production of revenues, they are said to expire. Expired costs are called expenses. On the income statement, expenses are deducted from revenues to determine income (also called profit). We can look more closely at the relationship between cost and revenue by focusing on the units sold. The revenue per unit is called price.
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26. Accounts Payable & Telephone Expense Account3
Accumulating Costs
Accumulating costs is the way that costs are measured and recorded.
Phone Bill
Recorded
Accounts Payable & Telephone Expense Account
Accumulating costs is the way that costs are measured and recorded. The accounting system typically does this job quite well. When the company receives a phone bill, for example, the bookkeeper records an addition to the telephone expense account and an addition to the liability account, Accounts Payable. In this way, the cost is accumulated.
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27. What is the cost object for the phone call?3
Assigning Costs
Assigning costs is the way that a cost is linked to some cost object.
To support Manufacturing?
What is the cost object for the phone call?
??????????
Assigning costs is the way that a cost is linked to some cost object. A cost object is something for which a company wants to know the cost. For example, of the total phone expense, how much was for the sales department, and how much was for manufacturing? Assigning costs tells the company why the money was spent. In this case, cost assignment tells whether the money spent on phone calls was to support the manufacturing or the selling of the product.
To support Selling the Product?
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28. 3
Cost Objects
Managerial accounting systems are structured to measure and assign costs to entities called cost objects.
A cost object is any item such as a product, customer, department, project, geographic region, plant, and so on, for which costs are measured and assigned.
Managerial accounting systems are structured to measure and assign costs to entities called cost objects. A cost object is any item such as a product, customer, department, project, geographic region, plant, and so on, for which costs are measured and assigned.
© 2012 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. May not be copied, scanned, or duplicated, in whole or in part, except for use as permitted in a license distributed with a certain product or service or otherwise on a password-protected website for classroom use.

29. Assigning Costs to Cost Objects3
Assigning Costs to Cost Objects
Costs can be assigned to cost objects in a number of ways.
The choice of a method depends on a number of factors, such as the need for accuracy.
The objective is to measure and assign costs as well as possible, given management objectives.
Costs can be assigned to cost objects in a number of ways. The choice of a method depends on a number of factors, such as the need for accuracy. The objective is to measure and assign costs as well as possible, given management objectives.
© 2012 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. May not be copied, scanned, or duplicated, in whole or in part, except for use as permitted in a license distributed with a certain product or service or otherwise on a password-protected website for classroom use.

30. You Decide For Which Business Activities
Do We Need an Estimate of Cost? 3
For which business activities do we need an estimate of cost? Let’s take a minute to explore this topic in the You Decide case. Assume you are the Chief Financial Officer for a major airline company. Managing the company’s numerous costs is critically important in this fiercely competitive industry. Therefore, one of your major tasks is deciding which costs to manage in order to achieve the company’s profitability targets. In other words, you must identify the airline’s most important cost objects to track, measure, and control. Which cost objects would you select as critical to the company’s success?
Certain airline cost objects are obvious, such as the cost of operating a flight, which includes jet fuel and labor costs.
When an airline operates multiple types of aircraft, it incurs additional costs to train workers and store spare parts for each aircraft type.
Airlines might be even more specific with certain cost objects, such as when they focus on the cost per available seat mile (CASM).
Cost of managing crises is also an important cost object.
Finally, you might consider the cost object of processing customers, such as loading and unloading passengers and their baggage on and off of flights.
Like any company, an airline can identify and manage any cost objects it so desires. Sometimes the most difficult part of effective cost management is the first step—deciding on the exact items for which one needs to understand the cost. Mistakes in selecting the cost objects almost always lead to poor decisions and subpar performance.
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31. 3
Direct Costs
Direct costs are those costs that can be easily and accurately traced to a cost object.
When we say that a cost is easy to trace, we often mean that the relationship between the cost and the object can be physically observed and is easy to track.
The more costs that can be traced to the object, the more accurate are the cost assignments.
Direct costs are those costs that can be easily and accurately traced to a cost object. When we say that a cost is easy to trace, we often mean that the relationship between the cost and the object can be physically observed and is easy to track. The more costs that can be traced to the object, the more accurate are the cost assignments.
© 2012 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. May not be copied, scanned, or duplicated, in whole or in part, except for use as permitted in a license distributed with a certain product or service or otherwise on a password-protected website for classroom use.

32. 3
Indirect Costs
Indirect costs are costs that cannot be easily and accurately traced to a cost object.
Allocation means that an indirect cost is assigned to a cost object by using a reasonable and convenient method.
Since no clearly observable causal relationship exists, allocating indirect costs is based on convenience or some assumed causal linkage.
Indirect costs are costs that cannot be easily and accurately traced to a cost object. Allocation means that an indirect cost is assigned to a cost object by using a reasonable and convenient method. Since no clearly observable causal relationship exists, allocating indirect costs is based on convenience or some assumed causal linkage.
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33. 3
Object Costing
Direct and indirect costs occur in service businesses as well.
Some businesses refer to indirect costs as overhead costs or support costs.
Direct and indirect costs occur in service businesses as well. Some businesses refer to indirect costs as overhead costs or support costs. This slide shows examples of direct and indirect costs being assigned to cost objects.
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34. Other Categories of Cost3
Other Categories of Cost
In addition to being categorized as either direct or indirect, costs often are analyzed with respect to their behavior patterns, or the way in which a cost changes when the level of the output changes.
Variable cost: A variable cost is one that increases in total as output increases and decreases in total as output decreases.
Fixed cost: A fixed cost is a cost that does not increase in total as output increases and does not decrease in total as output decreases.
Opportunity cost: An opportunity cost is the benefit given up or sacrificed when one alternative is chosen over another.
In addition to being categorized as either direct or indirect, costs often are analyzed with respect to their behavior patterns, or the way in which a cost changes when the level of the output changes.
Variable cost: A variable cost is one that increases in total as output increases and decreases in total as output decreases.
Fixed cost: A fixed cost is a cost that does not increase in total as output increases and does not decrease in total as output decreases.
Opportunity cost: An opportunity cost is the benefit given up or sacrificed when one alternative is chosen over another.
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35. 4
Product Costs
Output represents one of the most important cost objects.
There are two types of output: products and services.
Products are goods produced by converting raw materials through the use of labor and indirect manufacturing resources, such as the manufacturing plant, land, and machinery.
Televisions, hamburgers, automobiles, computers, clothes, and furniture are examples of products.
Output represents one of the most important cost objects. There are two types of output: products and services. Products are goods produced by converting raw materials through the use of labor and indirect manufacturing resources, such as the manufacturing plant, land, and machinery. Televisions, hamburgers, automobiles, computers, clothes, and furniture are examples of products.
© 2012 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. May not be copied, scanned, or duplicated, in whole or in part, except for use as permitted in a license distributed with a certain product or service or otherwise on a password-protected website for classroom use.

36. 4
Service Costs
Services are tasks or activities performed for a customer or an activity performed by a customer using an organization’s products or facilities. Insurance coverage, medical care, dental care, funeral care, and accounting are examples of service activities performed for customers.
Car rental, video rental, and skiing are examples of services where the customer uses an organization’s products or facilities.
Services are tasks or activities performed for a customer or an activity performed by a customer using an organization’s products or facilities. Insurance coverage, medical care, dental care, funeral care, and accounting are examples of service activities performed for customers. Car rental, video rental, and skiing are examples of services where the customer uses an organization’s products or facilities.
© 2012 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. May not be copied, scanned, or duplicated, in whole or in part, except for use as permitted in a license distributed with a certain product or service or otherwise on a password-protected website for classroom use.

37. Service Costs (continued)4
Service Costs (continued)
Services differ from products in many ways.
Services are intangible
Services are perishable
Services require direct contact between providers and buyers 1 2
Services differ from products in many ways, including:
Services are intangible: In other words, the buyers of services cannot see, feel, hear, or taste a service before it is bought.
Services are perishable: Put another way, services cannot be stored for future use by a consumer but must be consumed when performed. Inventory valuation, so important for products, is not an issue for services. Because service organizations do not produce and sell products as part of their regular operations, they have no inventory asset on the balance sheet.
Services require direct contact between providers and buyers: Let’s consider an eye examination, for example. It requires both the patient and the optometrist to be present. However, producers of products need not have direct contact with the buyers of their goods. Thus, buyers of automobiles never need to have contact with the engineers and assembly line workers that produced their automobiles. 3
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38. Providing Cost Information4
Providing Cost Information
Managerial accountants must decide:
what types of managerial accounting information to provide to managers,
how to measure such information, and
when and to whom to communicate the information.
For example, when making most strategic and operating decisions, managers typically rely on managerial accounting information that is prepared in whatever manner the managerial accountant believes provides the best analysis for the decision at hand.
Managerial accountants must decide what types of managerial accounting information to provide to managers, how to measure such information, and when and to whom to communicate the information. For example, when making most strategic and operating decisions, managers typically rely on managerial accounting information that is prepared in whatever manner the managerial accountant believes provides the best analysis for the decision at hand.
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39. Providing Cost Information (continued)4
Providing Cost Information (continued)
There is one major exception.
Managerial accountants must follow specific external reporting rules (i.e., generally accepted accounting principles) when their companies provide outside parties with cost information about the amount of ending inventory on the balance sheet and the cost of goods sold on the income statement.
In order to calculate these two amounts, managerial accountants must subdivide costs into functional categories: production and period (i.e., nonproduction).
There is one major exception. Managerial accountants must follow specific external reporting rules (i.e., generally accepted accounting principles) when their companies provide outside parties with cost information about the amount of ending inventory on the balance sheet and the cost of goods sold on the income statement. In order to calculate these two amounts, managerial accountants must subdivide costs into functional categories: production and period (i.e., nonproduction).
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40. Determining Product Cost4
Determining Product Cost
Product (manufacturing) costs are those costs, both direct and indirect, of producing a product in a manufacturing firm or of acquiring a product in a merchandising firm and preparing it for sale.
Therefore, only costs in the production section of the value chain are included in product costs.
Product (manufacturing) costs are those costs, both direct and indirect, of producing a product in a manufacturing firm or of acquiring a product in a merchandising firm and preparing it for sale. Therefore, only costs in the production section of the value chain are included in product costs.
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41. Determining Product Cost (continued)4
Determining Product Cost (continued)
Product costs are inventoried.
Product costs initially are added to an inventory account and remain in inventory until they are sold, at which time they are transferred to cost of goods.
Product costs can be further classified as direct materials, direct labor, and manufacturing overhead.
Product costs are inventoried. Product costs initially are added to an inventory account and remain in inventory until they are sold, at which time they are transferred to cost of goods. Product costs can be further classified as direct materials, direct labor, and manufacturing overhead.
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42. 4
Direct Materials
Direct materials are those materials that are a part of the final product and can be directly traced to the goods being produced.
The cost of these materials can be directly charged to products because physical observation can be used to measure the quantity used by each product.
Materials that become part of a product usually are classified as direct materials.
Direct materials are those materials that are a part of the final product and can be directly traced to the goods being produced. The cost of these materials can be directly charged to products because physical observation can be used to measure the quantity used by each product. Materials that become part of a product usually are classified as direct materials.
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43. 4
Direct Labor
Direct labor is the labor that can be directly traced to the goods being produced.
Physical observation can be used to measure the amount of labor used to produce a product.
Those employees who convert direct materials into a product are classified as direct labor.
A company can also have indirect labor costs.
Indirect labor is included in overhead and, therefore, is an indirect cost rather than a direct cost.
Direct labor is the labor that can be directly traced to the goods being produced. Physical observation can be used to measure the amount of labor used to produce a product. Those employees who convert direct materials into a product are classified as direct labor. A company can also have indirect labor costs. Indirect labor is included in overhead and, therefore, is an indirect cost rather than a direct cost.
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44. Manufacturing Overhead4
Manufacturing Overhead
All product costs other than direct materials and direct labor are put into a category called manufacturing overhead.
In a manufacturing firm, manufacturing overhead also is known as factory burden or indirect manufacturing costs.
Costs are included as manufacturing overhead if they cannot be traced to the cost object of interest (e.g., unit of product).
The manufacturing overhead cost category contains a wide variety of items.
Examples of manufacturing overhead costs include depreciation on plant buildings and equipment, janitorial and maintenance labor, plant supervision, materials handling, power for plant utilities, and plant property taxes.
All product costs other than direct materials and direct labor are put into a category called manufacturing overhead. In a manufacturing firm, manufacturing overhead also is known as factory burden or indirect manufacturing costs. Costs are included as manufacturing overhead if they cannot be traced to the cost object of interest (e.g., unit of product). The manufacturing overhead cost category contains a wide variety of items. Examples of manufacturing overhead costs include depreciation on plant buildings and equipment, janitorial and maintenance labor, plant supervision, materials handling, power for plant utilities, and plant property taxes.
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45. Calculating Total Product Cost4
Calculating Total Product Cost
The total product cost equals the sum of direct materials, direct labor, and manufacturing overhead:
Total product post = Direct materials cost + Direct labor cost + Manufacturing overhead cost
The unit product cost equals total product cost divided by the number of units produced:
Per-unit Cost = Total Product Cost ÷ Number of Units Produced
The total product cost equals the sum of direct materials, direct labor, and manufacturing overhead:
Total product post = Direct materials cost + Direct labor cost + Manufacturing overhead cost
The unit product cost equals total product cost divided by the number of units produced:
Per-unit Cost = Total Product Cost ÷ Number of Units Produced
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46. Calculating Product Cost
Cornerstone 13-1
Calculating Product Cost
in Total and Per Unit 4
Now let’s look at CORNERSTONE 13-1 which shows how to calculate total product cost and per unit product cost.
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47. Prime and Conversion Costs4
Prime and Conversion Costs
Product costs of direct materials, direct labor, and manufacturing overhead are sometimes grouped into prime cost and conversion cost:
Prime cost is the sum of direct materials cost and direct labor cost.
Prime cost = Direct materials + Direct labor
Conversion cost is the sum of direct labor cost and manufacturing overhead cost.
Product costs of direct materials, direct labor, and manufacturing overhead are sometimes grouped into prime cost and conversion cost:
Prime cost is the sum of direct materials cost and direct labor cost. Prime cost = Direct materials + Direct labor
Conversion cost is the sum of direct labor cost and manufacturing overhead cost. Conversion cost = Direct labor + Manufacturing Overhead
Conversion cost = Direct labor + Manufacturing Overhead
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48. Calculating Prime Cost and Conversion Cost in Total and Per Unit
Cornerstone 13-2
Calculating Prime Cost and
Conversion Cost in Total and Per Unit 4
Information:
Refer to the information in Cornerstone 13-1 for BlueDenim.
Required:
Calculate the total prime cost for last week.
Calculate the per-unit prime cost.
Calculate the total conversion cost for last week.
Calculate the per-unit conversion cost.
Now let’s look at CORNERSTONE 13-2 and see how to calculate prime cost and conversion cost in both total and per unit for a manufactured product.
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49. Cornerstone 13-2
Calculating Prime Cost and Conversion Cost in Total and Per Unit (continued) 4
As you go through the problem, remember that prime cost and conversion cost cannot be summed to obtain total product cost. This is because direct labor is included in BOTH prime cost and conversion cost.
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50. Period Costs 4
The costs of production are assets that are carried in inventories until the goods are sold.
There are other costs of running a company, referred to as period costs, that are not carried in inventory.
Thus, period costs are all costs that are not product costs (i.e., all areas of the value chain except for production).
The cost of office supplies, research and development activities, the CEO’s salary, and advertising are examples of period costs.
In a manufacturing organization, the level of period costs can be significant and controlling them may bring greater cost savings than the same effort exercised in controlling production costs.
The costs of production are assets that are carried in inventories until the goods are sold. There are other costs of running a company, referred to as period costs, that are not carried in inventory. Thus, period costs are all costs that are not product costs (i.e., all areas of the value chain except for production). The cost of office supplies, research and development activities, the CEO’s salary, and advertising are examples of period costs. In a manufacturing organization, the level of period costs can be significant and controlling them may bring greater cost savings than the same effort exercised in controlling production costs.
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51. Period Costs (continued)4
Period costs typically are expensed in the period in which they are incurred.
However, if a period cost is expected to provide an economic benefit (i.e., revenues) beyond the next year, then it is recorded as an asset (i.e., capitalized) and allocated to expense through depreciation throughout its useful life.
Period costs typically are expensed in the period in which they are incurred. However, if a period cost is expected to provide an economic benefit (i.e., revenues) beyond the next year, then it is recorded as an asset (i.e., capitalized) and allocated to expense through depreciation throughout its useful life. For example, the cost associated with the purchase of a delivery truck is a period cost that would be capitalized when incurred and then recognized as an expense over the useful life of the truck.
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52. Sales personnel Salaries & Commissions
Selling Costs 4
Those costs necessary to market, distribute, and service a product or service are selling costs.
EXAMPLES
Sales personnel Salaries & Commissions
Advertising
Order-getting
Order- Filling
Selling costs are those costs necessary to market, distribute, and service a product or service. They are often referred to as order-getting and order-filling costs. Examples of order-getting selling costs include salaries and commissions of sales personnel and advertising. Examples of order-filling selling costs include warehousing, shipping, and customer service.
EXAMPLES
Warehousing
Shipping
Customer Service
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53. Administrative Costs 4
All costs associated with research, development, and general administration of the organization that cannot reasonably be assigned to either selling or production are administrative costs.
General administration has the responsibility of ensuring that the various activities of the organization are properly integrated so that the overall mission of the firm is realized.
Examples of general administrative costs are executive salaries, legal fees, printing the annual report, and general accounting.
Research and development costs are the costs associated with designing and developing new products and must be expensed in the period incurred.
All costs associated with research, development, and general administration of the organization that cannot reasonably be assigned to either selling or production are administrative costs. General administration has the responsibility of ensuring that the various activities of the organization are properly integrated so that the overall mission of the firm is realized. Examples of general administrative costs are executive salaries, legal fees, printing the annual report, and general accounting. Research and development costs are the costs associated with designing and developing new products and must be expensed in the period incurred.
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54. Direct and Indirect Period Costs4
As with product costs, it is often helpful to distinguish between direct period costs and indirect period costs.
Indirect labor is included in overhead.
Service companies are also interested in distinguishing between direct period costs and indirect period costs.
Although these costs do not affect the calculation of inventories or COGS for service companies, their correct classification nonetheless affects numerous decisions and planning and control activities for managers.
Direct Period Cost:
Chef Salary
EXAMPLE:
Restaurant
As with product costs, it is often helpful to distinguish between direct period costs and indirect period costs. Indirect labor is included in overhead. Service companies are also interested in distinguishing between direct period costs and indirect period costs. Although these costs do not affect the calculation of inventories or COGS for service companies, their correct classification nonetheless affects numerous decisions and planning and control activities for managers. For service firm like a restaurant, the chef’s salary would likely be classified as a direct period expense, but since the exact number of disposable napkins per individual meal served could not be easily determined, the cost of disposable napkins would be considered indirect, or overhead and napkin costs would be allocated, rather than traced, to individual meals served.
Indirect Period Cost:
Disposable Napkins
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55. Preparing Income Statements: Cost of Goods Manufactured5
The cost of goods manufactured represents the total product cost of goods completed during the current period and transferred to finished goods inventory.
The cost of direct materials used in production can be derived using the following formula:
The direct materials used is then used to calculate the cost of goods manufactured as follows:
The cost of goods manufactured represents the total product cost of goods completed during the current period and transferred to finished goods inventory. The cost of direct materials used in production can be derived using the following formula: Beginning inventory of materials plus purchases minus direct materials used in production equals ending inventory of materials. Once the direct materials are calculated, the direct labor and manufacturing overhead for the time period can be added to get the cost of goods manufactured for the period. This is calculated as: Cost of goods manufactured = Direct materials used in production + Direct labor used in production + Manufacturing overhead costs used in production + Beginning WIP inventory - Ending WIP inventory
Cost of goods manufactured = Direct materials used in production + Direct labor used in production + Manufacturing overhead costs used in production + Beginning WIP inventory - Ending WIP inventory
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56. Calculating Direct Materials
Cornerstone 13-3
Calculating Direct Materials
Used in Production 5
Now let’s look at CORNERSTONE 13-3 and how to calculate direct materials used in production.
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57. Work-in-Process 5
Once the direct materials are calculated, the direct labor and manufacturing overhead for the time period can be added to get the total manufacturing cost for the period.
The second type of inventory—work in process (WIP) is the cost of the partially completed goods that are still on the factory floor at the end of a time period.
WIP units have been started, but not finished; they have some value, but not as much as they will when they are completed; and there are beginning and ending inventories of WIP.
We must adjust the total manufacturing cost for the time period for the inventories of WIP.
When that is done, we will have the total cost of the goods that were completed and transferred from work-in-process inventory to finished goods inventory during the time period.
Once the direct materials are calculated, the direct labor and manufacturing overhead for the time period can be added to get the total manufacturing cost for the period. The second type of inventory—work in process (WIP) is the cost of the partially completed goods that are still on the factory floor at the end of a time period.
WIP units have been started, but not finished; they have some value, but not as much as they will when they are completed; and there are beginning and ending inventories of WIP.
We must adjust the total manufacturing cost for the time period for the inventories of WIP.
When that is done, we will have the total cost of the goods that were completed and transferred from work-in-process inventory to finished goods inventory during the time period.
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58. Calculating Cost of Goods Manufactured
Cornerstone 13-4
Calculating Cost of Goods Manufactured 5
Now let’s look at CORNERSTONE 13-4 to see how to calculate the cost of goods manufactured for a particular time period.
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59. Calculating Cost of Goods Manufactured (continued)
Cornerstone 13-4
Calculating Cost of Goods Manufactured (continued) 5
Notice that the direct materials used in production is equal to the beginning materials in inventory plus purchased materials minus the ending materials in inventory.
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60. 5
Cost of Goods Sold
To meet external reporting requirements, costs must be classified into three categories:
Production
Selling
Administration
Cost of goods sold represents the cost of goods that were sold during the period and, therefore, transferred from finished goods inventory on the balance sheet to cost of goods sold on the income statement (i.e., as an inventory expense). Cost of goods sold is calculated as:
Cost of goods sold = Beginning finished goods inventory + Cost of goods manufactured - Ending finished goods inventory
To meet external reporting requirements, costs must be classified into three categories: (1) Production, (2) Selling, and (3) Administration. Cost of goods sold represents the cost of goods that were sold during the period and, therefore, transferred from finished goods inventory on the balance sheet to cost of goods sold on the income statement (i.e., as an inventory expense). Cost of goods sold is calculated as: Cost of goods sold = Beginning finished goods inventory + Cost of goods manufactured - Ending finished goods inventory.
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61. Calculating Cost of Goods Sold
Cornerstone 13-5
Calculating Cost of Goods Sold 5
Now let’s look at CORNERSTONE 13-5 which shows how to calculate the cost of goods sold.
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62. 5
Relationship Between Flow of Costs, Inventories, and Cost of Goods Sold
The ending inventories of materials, WIP, and finished goods are important because they are assets and appear on the balance sheet (as current assets). The cost of goods sold is an expense that appears on the income statement. Selling and administrative costs are period costs and also appear on the income statement as an expense. As this diagram shows, there is a flow of manufacturing costs (direct materials, direct labor and manufacturing overhead) through the three inventories (materials, work in process, and finished goods) and finally, into cost of goods sold.
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63. Income Statement: Manufacturing Firm5
Income Statement: Manufacturing Firm
It is important that all sales revenue and expenses attached to a time period appear on the income statement.
In the following Cornerstone example 2-6, notice that the heading of the financial statement tells us what type of statement it is – Income Statement; for what firm- BlueDenim Company; and for what period of time- For the Month of May.
Also note that in the income statement, expenses are separated into three categories: production (cost of goods sold), selling, and administrative.
Sales revenue is calculated as:
Sales revenue = Price x Units sold
It is important that all sales revenue and expenses attached to a time period appear on the income statement. In the following Cornerstone example 2-6, notice that the heading tells us what type of statement it is, for what firm, and for what period of time. Also note that in the income statement, expenses are separated into three categories: production (cost of goods sold), selling, and administrative. Sales revenue is calculated as: Sales revenue = Price x Units sold
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64. Preparing an Income Statement for a Manufacturing Firm
Cornerstone 13-6
Preparing an Income Statement
for a Manufacturing Firm 5
Now let’s look at CORNERSTONE 13-6 to see how the traditional format of the income statement is prepared for the manufacturing firm- BlueDenim Company.
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65. Income Statement: Manufacturing Firm (continued)5
Income Statement: Manufacturing Firm (continued)
Gross margin is the difference between sales revenue and cost of goods sold:
Gross Margin= Sales Revenue – Cost of Goods Sold
It shows how much the firm is making over and above the cost of the units sold.
Gross margin does not equal operating income or profit.
Selling and administrative expenses have not yet been subtracted. However, gross margin does provide useful information.
If gross margin is positive, the firm at least charges prices that cover the product cost.
Gross margin is the difference between sales revenue and cost of goods sold: Gross Margin= Sales Revenue – Cost of Goods Sold. It shows how much the firm is making over and above the cost of the units sold. Gross margin does not equal operating income or profit. Selling and administrative expenses have not yet been subtracted. However, gross margin does provide useful information. If gross margin is positive, the firm at least charges prices that cover the product cost.
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66. Gross Margin Percentage5
Gross Margin Percentage
A company can compare gross margin percentage with the average for its industry to see if its experience is within the ballpark range for other firms in the industry.
Gross margin percentage varies significantly by industry.
Gross margin percentage is calculated as:
Gross Margin Percentage = Gross Margin ÷ Sales Revenue
A company can compare gross margin percentage with the average for its industry to see if its experience is within the ballpark range for other firms in the industry. Gross margin percentage varies significantly by industry. Gross margin percentage is calculated as: Gross Margin Percentage = Gross Margin ÷ Sales Revenue
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67. Cornerstone 13-7
Calculating the Percentage of Sales Revenue for Each Line on the Income Statement 5
Now let’s look at CORNERSTONE 13-7 to gain a better understanding of how to calculate the gross margin percentage for BlueDenim Company, along with the percentage of sales revenue for each line on the income statement.
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68. 5
Operating Income
As you saw in Cornerstone 2-7, selling and administrative expenses for the period are subtracted from gross margin to arrive at operating income.
Operating income = Gross margin - Selling and administrative expenses
Operating income is the key figure from the income statement; it is profit, and shows how much the owners are actually earning from the company.
In a service organization, there is no product to purchase, like in a merchandising or manufacturing operation. As a result, there are no beginning or ending inventories and no cost of goods sold and gross margin on the income statement. The cost of providing services appears along with the other operating expenses of the company.
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69. Income Statement: Service Firm5
Income Statement: Service Firm
In a service organization, there is no product to purchase, like in a merchandising or manufacturing operation.
As a result, there are no beginning or ending inventories and no cost of goods sold and gross margin on the income statement.
The cost of providing services appears along with the other operating expenses of the company.
In a service organization, there is no product to purchase, like in a merchandising or manufacturing operation. As a result, there are no beginning or ending inventories and no cost of goods sold and gross margin on the income statement. The cost of providing services appears along with the other operating expenses of the company.
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70. Preparing an Income Statement for a Service Organization
Cornerstone 13-8
Preparing an Income Statement
for a Service Organization 5
Now let’s look at CORNERSTONE 13-8 to see an example of an income statement for a service organization.
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71. Managerial Accounting and Ethical Conduct6
Managerial Accounting and Ethical Conduct
The objective of profit maximization should be constrained by the requirement that profits be achieved through legal and ethical means.
Ethical behavior involves choosing actions that are right, proper, and just.
Behavior can be right or wrong; it can be proper or improper; and the decisions we make can be fair or unfair.
Companies in business for the long term find that it pays to treat all of their constituents with honesty and loyalty.
The objective of profit maximization should be constrained by the requirement that profits be achieved through legal and ethical means. Ethical behavior involves choosing actions that are right, proper, and just. Behavior can be right or wrong; it can be proper or improper; and the decisions we make can be fair or unfair. Companies in business for the long term find that it pays to treat all of their constituents with honesty and loyalty.
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72. Company Codes of Ethical Conduct6
Company Codes of Ethical Conduct
To promote ethical behavior by managers and employees, organizations commonly establish standards of conduct referred to as Company Codes of Conduct.
A quick review of various corporate codes of conduct shows some common ground.
Important parts of corporate codes of conduct are integrity, performance of duties, and compliance with the rule of law. They also uniformly prohibit the acceptance of kickbacks and improper gifts, insider trading, and misappropriation of corporate information and assets.
To promote ethical behavior by managers and employees, organizations commonly establish standards of conduct referred to as Company Codes of Conduct. A quick review of various corporate codes of conduct shows some common ground. Important parts of corporate codes of conduct are integrity, performance of duties, and compliance with the rule of law. They also uniformly prohibit the acceptance of kickbacks and improper gifts, insider trading, and misappropriation of corporate information and assets.
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73. 6
Certification
The accounting profession offers three major forms of certification to managerial accountants:
Certificate in Management Accounting
Certificate in Public Accounting
Certificate in Internal Auditing
Each certification offers particular advantages to a managerial accountant.
All three certifications offer evidence that the holder has achieved a minimum level of professional competence.
The accounting profession offers three major forms of certification to managerial accountants: (1) Certificate in Management Accounting; (2) Certificate in Public Accounting; and (3) Certificate in Internal Auditing. Each certification offers particular advantages to a managerial accountant. All three certifications offer evidence that the holder has achieved a minimum level of professional competence.
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