1. Research Foundations for L2 Reading Instruction
Bill Grabe
Northern Arizona University

2. Introduction The miracle of reading
Defining reading and cognitive foundations
The reading construct as the goal for the development of reading abilities
Expertise and reading: Get a good coach
L1 and L2 Reading
Implications from research for instruction
Key research-based instruction ideas

3. The Miracle of Reading
Reading is not genetically wired and every person must learn to read with someone’s help
We learn to process reading faster than listening
During fluent reading, we recognize words on average in about 230 msec., about 5 WPS
Two seconds of reading (handout)
It is miraculous; more than 89% of humans learn to read, and many can do it in a second language

4. Defining Reading
Most definitions of reading comprehension are similar but they do not say enough
Reading is a complex cognitive process
Component skills include rapid word recognition, a large recognition vocabulary syntactic processing, strategic processing, main idea recognition, fluent processing, and use of general cognitive resources.

5. Reading Processes: General Cognitive Skills
Working memory
Background knowledge
Inductive, implicit learning mechanism, associational learning, statistical learning
Cognitive processing speed
Inhibitory suppression mechanism
Selective attention and shifting mechanisms
Inferencing, monitoring , and goal setting abilities
Capacity for motivation to learn

6. Reading Processes: Lower and higher Level Processes
Lower level processes: Word recognition, lexico-syntactic processing, semantic processing
Higher level processing: form main and supporting ideas, build a text model of comprehension, a situation model od reader interpretation, and a documents model
All in working memory and a bit more (wherever that is)

7. Get a Good Coach
Reading in academic contexts requires reading expertise
Expertise requires a coach/teacher, many hours of experience, and deliberate practice
Concept of deliberate practice has many similarities with work of athletic trainers
Deliberate practice develops better mental representations, and new knowledge resources (see handout)

8. L1 – L2 Differences L2 reading is even more complex
A much smaller L2 linguistic knowledge base
Much less experience with L2 reading exposure
Cognitive processing involving two languages
A range of L1 transfer effects
Differing combinations of background knowledge
Distinct L2 social and cultural assumptions

9. L1 – L2 Similarities Same underlying cognitive processes
More similar as proficiency increases
More similar with closer L1/L2 linguistic distance
More similar as higher level cognitive processes are called on (for challenging but appropriate academic tasks)
Multiple processing paths to comprehension is true even within L1 groups of readers

10. L2 Meta-analysis
Melby-Lervag, M., & Lervag, A. (2014). Reading comprehension and its underlying components in second-language learners: A meta-analysis of studies comparing first-and second-language learners. Psychological Bulletin, 140(2),
82 studies, 576 effect sizes, 15,137 learners, 8 moderator variables, 1980 to 2011.
L2 learners: medium sized deficit in reading comp (d=-.62)
L2 large deficit in language comp (d=-1.12)
L2 minimal deficits in decoding and phonological aware.

11. L2 meta-analysis (2)
Jeon, E.-H., & Yamashita, J. (2014). L2 reading comprehension and its correlates: A Meta-analysis. Language Learning, 64(1),
Reading comp, 10 component variables, 4 moderator var.
59 studies, 67 independent samples, 9,461 learners,
R sq. vocab 62%, r sq. grammar 72%, decoding 31%, orthographic know. r sq. 25%. Morphological know. 37%
Vocab shared variance much stronger with older learners
Listening comp. r sq. 59%

12. L2 Reading, L2 Language, L1 Reading
Yamashita, J., & Shiotsu, T. (2017). Comprehension and knowledge components that predict L2 reading: A latent-trait approach. Applied Linguistics, 38(1),
Latent trait analysis with Rasch scores and SEM
325 English L2 Japanese univ. students
Variables: L1 reading, L2 listening, L2 vocab-grammar combination (L2 knowledge)
Full sample: r. sq of 94% between L2 reading and L2 listening and L2 knowledge. L1 Reading was negligible
More advanced students: L1 reading emerged as a weak 3rd predictor.

13. Discourse Structure Awareness: Graphic Organizers
Jiang, X. (2012). Effects of discourse structure graphic organizers on EFL reading comprehension. Reading in a Foreign Language, 24(1),
16 week training with DSGOs with freshmen (174) and sophomores (166) in reading course at Shanghai Univ.: 179 experimental and 161 control
75% of course exactly the same, treatment classes had 25% time working with DSGOs for texts in the required textbook.
DSGO test showed a strong effect (Cohen d .82), TOEFL RC showed small gain (Cohen d .34)
Grammar: treatment did signif. better on unit texts by end.

14. Extensive Reading as Effective Add-on
Robb, T., & Kano, M. (2013). Effective extensive reading outside the classroom: A large-scale experiment. Reading in a Foreign Language, 25(2),
All Students at Kyoto Sangyo University for 2008 (2,797) and for 2009 (2,200). University implemented university ER at home for Students read 5 graded readers for full credit.
2009 year students in all disciplines significantly improved in reading comprehension and most improved in listening
Success due to additive homework, well stocked central library, M-reader accounting, central admin support.

15. Extensive Reading Training Improves Reading
Suk, N. (2017).The effects of extensive reading on reading comprehension, reading rate, and vocabulary acquisition. Reading Research Quarterly, 52(1), 73-89
171 English L2 Korean University students: 83 experimental (2 classes) and 88 control (2 classes). 70% of curriculum was the same; 30% in experimental was ER time.
Treatment sig. better for reading comp (d =.30), rate (d=.39), and vocab (d=.70).
ER can be incorporated into EFL university classes and achieve better results while still using required textbook.

16. Seven Implications for Teaching L2 Reading
Build a large recognition Vocabulary
Develop main idea comprehension skills
Teach discourse structure awareness
Develop reading fluency
Develop the strategic reader
Require extensive reading
Integrate language and content instruction

17. Trans Fats in Trouble (From Anderson, 2008)
Read the text for 2-3 minutes to prepare for a set of tasks.

18. Build a Large Recognition Vocabulary
Practice using large numbers of words
Create a vocabulary–rich environment to support learning
Build student awareness of words
Help students collect words
Build motivation for word learning
Recycle texts and vocabulary
Require extensive reading

19. Build a Large Recognition Vocabulary
Select a small number of key words (5-8 words)
Note words from a text to use for vocabulary practice activities
Gloss uncommon words (fuss: attention)

20. 30-50 Words to Practice ruled out staples texture
attributed to medical study chemically changed
process flavor the addition of
a greater chance linked to controlling
proven heart disease cancer
requires obesity to alert
Forced restrict health conditions
mandatory labeling created
ban resulting heating
Adhere to validating correlating

21. Use Large Sets of Words
Working with large sets of words provides a vocabulary–rich environment to support learning
Sorting
Using continua

22. Use Large Sets of Words
Based on the text, sort words into 3 categories (problems, processes, solutions):
attributed to medical study allowed
process the addition of intrude into
greater chance linked to controlling
proven heart disease eliminate
requires changed correlating
health conditions restrict forced
mandatory created choice
ban resulting heating
adhere to strict rules obesity

23. Use Large Sets of Words
Here is one possible set of answers based on the text (problems, processes, solutions [regulations]):
attributed to process allowed
medical study the addition of ban
linked to created controlling
proven heating eliminate
greater chance resulting strict rules
health conditions changed forced
correlating restrict adhere to
heart disease requires mandatory
obesity intrude into choice

24. Use Large Sets of Words
Sort solution (regulation) words along the continuum below
Minimal control Maximal control
adhere to, allow, ban, eliminate, willing, forced, mandatory, voluntarily, control, not intrude into, restrict, choice

25. Use Large Sets of Words
Sort solution (control) words along the continuum below
Minimal control Maximal control
adhere to, allow, ban, eliminate, willing, forced, mandatory
voluntarily, control, not intrude into, restrict, choice
— eliminate
— willing

26. Use Large Sets of Words
— mandatory
— not intrude into
— restrict
Sort solution (control) words along the continuum below
Minimal control Maximal control
— eliminate
— adhere to
— voluntarily
— willing
— allow
— choice
— forced
— control
— ban

27. Practice Comprehension Skills
Activities that activate background knowledge
Activities to identify main ideas in the text
Strategic processing with more difficult texts
Discussions about text information (questions on how to understand the text)
Extensive reading

28. Practice Comprehension Skills
Identify main idea sentences

29. Identifying Main Idea Sentences
Here are my answers:
Paragraph 1 – sentence 3
Paragraph 2 – sentence 1
Paragraph 3 – sentence 1
Paragraph 4 – sentence 1
Paragraph 5 – sentence 1 (?)
Here are my answers:
Paragraph 1 – sentence 4
Paragraph 2 – sentence 1 (or 2)
Paragraph 3 – sentence 1
Paragraph 4 – sentence 1
Paragraph 5 – sentence 1
Paragraph 6 – sentence 3 (or 1)

30. Build Awareness of Text Structure
Preview texts and highlight key words that signal text structure
Highlight a paragraph; decide its function in the text
Fill in an outline of the text and determine main units of the text
Fill in a table, chart, graph, timeline, tree, graphic organizer, etc.
Find patterns of discourse organization in a text (cause-effect, comparison-contrast)
Reorganize scrambled paragraphs and sentences to reassemble a text or to make a good summary

31. Build Awareness of Text Structure
A text example: Trans Fats in Trouble

32. Build Awareness of Text Structure
Problem (para 1)
Solutions (para 3-5)
Foods labeled for TF:
Canada, US
4. City voluntarily eliminates
TF: Tiburon, CA
Trans fats (TF) affect health (para 1)
Here’s my answers. My answers are compressed here to save space on the slide.
(Pause 10 seconds.) Then go over.
The goal of this task is to find good answers without worrying about exactly right answers. The task itself, or checking the answers, can also be done as group work.
There are many ways to exploit this format for building text structure awareness and better reading comprehension.
Other major patterns of text structure in this text can also be developed through graphic organizers.

33. Build Awareness of Text Structure
Problem (para 1)
Solutions (para 3-5)
Countries restrict TF:
Denmark, Canada
Foods labeled for TF:
Canada, US
City requires ban on TF
in restaurant：NYC
City voluntarily eliminates
TF: Tiburon, CA
States ban TF: CA, MA,
MD, VT
Trans fats affect health (para 1)
Here’s my answers. My answers are compressed here to save space on the slide.
(Pause 10 seconds.) Then go over.
The goal of this task is to find good answers without worrying about exactly right answers. The task itself, or checking the answers, can also be done as group work.
There are many ways to exploit this format for building text structure awareness and better reading comprehension.
Other major patterns of text structure in this text can also be developed through graphic organizers.

34. Practicing Passage Reading Fluency
Reread texts used in class for multiple purposes
Read silently with the teacher as the teacher reads aloud
Use timed reading activities
Engage in rereading practice (recycling) with a text used for a class unit
Incorporate extensive reading

35. Becoming a Strategic Reading
Plan and form goals before reading
Reread as appropriate
Monitor reading continuously
Use text structure information to guide understanding
Build main idea summaries
Evaluate the text and the author
Attempt to resolve difficulties

36. Teaching Strategic Reading
Introduce a strategy, talk about how, when, and why to use it. Add strategy to a class list
Verbalize strategies in combination so students “see” strategies being used
Model strategic reading, provide scaffolding, give extensive practice
Focus comprehension discussions and questions on how to understand the text
Promote comprehension monitoring
Include strategy instruction as a part of everyday instruction, and not separate lessons

37. Developing Extensive Reading
Provide as many attractive reading materials as is feasible
Provide time for free reading in class (ScSR)
Explain goals of extensive reading and long term benefits of extensive reading
Integrate extensive reading in reading courses
Create many opportunities for all kinds of reading
Have a good graded-reader collection in the school or classroom library
Find out what students like to read and why

38. Language & Content Learning for Reading Development
Teach component skills for reading within an integrated coherent curriculum
Create opportunities for extended reading and recycling of prior texts in class
Hold students responsible for language and content learning
Create increasingly complex tasks; growing challenges to match growing skill
Incorporate project-based learning
Generate needs to interpret and evaluate information from multiple texts (good EAP tasks)

39. Research Foundations for L2 Reading Instruction
Bill Grabe
Northern Arizona University