1. Instructions From the Bottom Up
Based in part on material from Chapters 4 & 5 in Computer Architecture by Nicholas Carter
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2. Von Neumann Architecture
John von Neumann was a consultant to the ENIAC project.
The instructions could be converted into numbers and placed in memory along with the data. This is known as the stored program concept.
The combination of the basic units (ALU, control, memory, input and output) with the stored program concept give one the “von Neumann architecture.”
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3. The “von Neumann bottleneck"
Our basic approach is to
get the instruction from memory (fetch)
Get the data from memory or put data in memory, etc. (execute)
We go back and forth between the memory and CPU, one instruction at a time. This is sometimes called the “von Neumann bottleneck.”
Ideas like caching and pipelining attempt to speed the process up but they don’t vary from the overall approach.
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4. Code from the bottom up
When one examines a problem starting with the smallest constituent pieces and starts putting them together, then one is said to be taking a “bottom up” approach.
Let us consider programming on a computer that has the simple architecture shown on the next slide from the bottom up.
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5. Bus Keyboard encoder Input port 1 Accumulator Flags ALU Input port 2
Prog. counter
TMP
Mem.Add.Reg. B
Memory C
MDR
Output port 3
Display
Instr. Reg.
Output port 4
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Control

6. Lots of registers
After Memory, Control and the ALU, most of the other items in this architecture are registers.
Recall counter is a register that can increment
Registers are small units of memory that are associated with the processor.
The registers serve various special purposes.
In some cases, main memory could be used in place of a particular register, but using the register speeds up the processor.
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7. Speeding up the process
Registers are faster than main memory because writing to or reading from a block of memory is (at least) a two-step process
Specify the address
Read or write a value at that address
A register is a single unit of memory and thus eliminates the first step.
(There is also a vicinity consideration, the registers are on the processor chip, the memory is on a separate chip or chips.)
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8. Incidental remark on memory speed
There are two basic types of random access memory (RAM)
Static RAM (SRAM) – does not require refreshing to hold its value and is fast but expensive
Dynamic RAM (DRAM) – does require refreshing to hold its value and is slow but cheap
Special blocks of SRAM (cache) can be used to speed up the processor’s interaction with memory. In addition, some cache is right on the microprocessor chip.
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9. Register size
The size of the registers (the number of bits, binary digits, it has) is an important feature of a processor.
A register may hold
Data: thus its size may affect the range and/or precision of numbers available.
Address: thus its size may affect the number of addressable locations.
Instruction: thus its size may affect the number of instructions one can have.
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10. Intel family chip comparison table from howstuffworks.com
It’s been at 32 bits for awhile so one doesn’t hear a lot about it, but 64 is already here for high-end processors.
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11. Register hiding
Registers play a role in programming at the assembly level, but their use is hidden when one programs with high-level languages.
(The programming language C allows for some low-level programming.)
This is an example of those familiar ideas
Layering
Information hiding
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12. (Architecture reminder)
Bus
(Architecture reminder)
Keyboard encoder
Input port 1
Accumulator
Flags
ALU
Input port 2
Prog. counter
TMP
Mem.Add.Reg. B
Memory C
MDR
Output port 3
Display
Instr. Reg.
Output port 4
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Control

13. Controlling a register
One enters a value into a register (i.e. loads it)
If the load control input is active
When the clock is at the appropriate part of its cycle (e.g. positive edge)
If a register is allowed to place its value on the bus, it will have an enable control input. It will do so
When the enable control input is active
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14. Other control inputs
The other components in the architecture also have control pins that determine whether the component is active and what specific action it might be performing.
These control inputs are connected to the control unit which determines at each instance what components are active.
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15. Micro-coding Load Accumulator A
To discuss coding from the bottom up, one starts with micro-code.
Micro-code is “burned” into the read-only memory (ROM) of the control unit and is sent out to the control inputs of the other components.
Let us examine the micro-code of the assemble level instruction Load Acc. A
Assume control inputs are active when they are high
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16. (Architecture reminder)
Bus
(Architecture reminder)
Keyboard encoder
Input port 1
Accumulator
Flags
ALU
Input port 2
Prog. counter
TMP
Mem.Add.Reg. B
Memory C
MDR
Output port 3
Display
Instr. Reg.
Output port 4
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Control

17. Control pins 
Assume here that 1 is active and 0 is inactive – “active high”
Address State: the value of the program counter (which recall is the address of line of the program to be performed) is put into memory address register.
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18. Increment State: the program counter is incremented, getting it ready for the next time.
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19. Memory State: the current line of the program is put into instruction register (so Control knows what to do).
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20. Recall the instruction consisted of a load command and an address
Recall the instruction consisted of a load command and an address. A copy of the address is now taken over to the memory address register.
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21. The value at that address is loaded into Accumulator A.
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22. For the load command, there is no activity during the sixth step
For the load command, there is no activity during the sixth step. It is known as a "no operation" step (a "no op" or "nop").
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23. These 1’s and 0’s are MICRO-CODE.
(Don’t confuse micro-code with macro-code.)
It is fed directly to the hardware (specifically the control pins of the devices).
Unless you are a hardware manufacturer, you usually don’t program at this level known as microprogramming.
You might copy someone else’s code when you flash the BIOS.
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24. ROM, PROM, EPROM, EEPROM
ROM: Read Only Memory (written by manufacturer)
PROM: Programmable Read Only Memory (written by user, write once)
EPROM: Erasable Programmable Read Only Memory (user can erase, take out of computer and apply ultraviolet light)
EEPROM: Electrically Erasable Programmable Read Only Memory (user can erase with out removing from computer)
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25. Moving up one level
Micro-code rarely changes thus it is written in (“burned into”) read-only memory (ROM).
By the true meaning of the terms, ROM is RAM, by which I mean that a particular “word” in ROM is accessed using an address and does not require progressing through previous locations.
Thus we can access the micro-code by supplying its address. Effectively, the addresses of the micro-code is the next level of programming: machine code.
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26. Machine code
In a machine-code program, one tells the computer to execute the micro-code found at Control-ROM Address1, then execute the micro-code found at Control-ROM Address2, etc.
The program looks something like
Address1
Address2
except that the addresses are in binary (1’s and 0’s). So it might look like
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27. Machine code is software
Micro-code is often referred to as firmware to indicate that it is the transition between hardware and software, that it is written in ROM and not changed very readily.
Machine code is placed in RAM, which is easily rewritten. Thus it is soft.
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28. Ground floor for software
Machine code is the lowest level of software.
It is the only level of software capable of communicating with the hardware (via the firmware).
Thus all software must be put into machine language form before it can be executed.
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29. What makes software soft?
Part of the flexibility of software is that the set of instructions can be rearranged, leading to a different program.
Another part of the flexibility is the inclusion of data with the instructions.
A machine level instruction may be to move the value stored at a certain memory location to a register (e.g. Accumulator A).
Part of the instruction is data, the memory location, which can be changed to yield different results.
Also the data at the memory location can be changed to yield different results.
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30. Operator/Operand
So a software instruction can specify an action and data to be acted upon.
We use the term operator (also op-code) to refer to the action.
We use the term operand to refer to the data.
So if we instruct the computer to copy the value from memory location 35 to accumulator A, then
Copying a value from memory to Acc. A is the operator
Location 35 is the operand
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31. Instruction set
So a programmer can modify the order of instructions and the data portion (operands) of those instructions, but what is fixed is the set of allowable instructions, known as the instruction set.
The instruction set is an important characteristic of the processor, what instructions and how many are allowed.
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32. Instruction-Set Size Issue
Often one can realize a complicated instruction by using simple instructions, but then one must execute several instructions instead of just one.
The burden is taken off the hardware and put on the software.
So an issue in processor design is whether one should have a smaller collection of simpler, faster instructions or whether one should support a larger collection of more complex instructions.
If the more complex instructions are rarely used, it may be better to leave them out – provided their effect can obtained using a combination of other instructions.
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33. RISC/CISC
Reduced Instruction Set Computers (RISC) use processors that limit the number of instructions with the idea that the supported instructions will be simpler and faster.
A simpler instruction set also means less circuitry, fewer transistors and thus cheaper processors.
To distinguish conventional designed from RISC machines, the term Complex Instruction Set Computers (CISC) was introduced.
Ideas from both camps have merged, so now it is hard to distinguish RISC from CISC.
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34. RISCs in Parallel
RISC processors are coming around again but this time in parallel.
The simpler RISC processor requires fewer transistors and takes up less space. Thus one can place two or more of them on a single chip. Multicore.
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35. Stored program as data
At the machine language level, one is writing software by entering strings of 1’s and 0’s. This is tedious and error prone.
In the stored program concept, the instructions and the data are placed together in memory.
It is then possible to treat the program as data – either of a different program or indeed of the same program.
The latter case is known as self-modifying code.
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36. Assembly: one small step …
Instead of coding in machine language’s binary strings, people introduced mnemonics for the instructions.
For example, LDA 35 instead of something like
Then there was a program that treated the mnemonic code as data and created from it the corresponding machine code.
The program is called an assembler and the mnemonic code is called assembly.
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37. One-to-one
There is essentially a one-to-one correspondence between assembly code and machine code. The assembler code corresponds to a look-up table.
It looks up the assembly code and outputs the corresponding machine code.
It can also do some checking. If the code submitted is not proper assembly code, …
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38. Hardware Aware
The assembly programmer has to have knowledge of the computer’s architecture
What registers there are
What actions are allowed on those registers
Etc.
If the hardware changes, the assembly program may no longer be any good.
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39. Backward Compatibility
So as to not render customer’s software completely useless, processor designers take backward compatibility into consideration.
A computer is called “backward compatible” if it can run the same software as the previous model of the computer.
The reverse is not necessarily true for software written based on the new hardware.
A manufacturer will try to make a series or family of processors backward compatible provided it doesn’t stand in the way of progress.
Sometimes the computer has a special mode for running old programs.
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40. Intel
Intel introduced the first microprocessor (the CPU on a single chip) – the 4004 designed in conjunction with the Japanese firm Busicom for use in a calculator.
They followed this with the 4040, 8008, 8080, 8086, 8088, and the
At this stage, people drop the 80 at the beginning, giving the 286, 386, 486.
Because a company cannot trademark a number, they stopped using this naming scheme, so instead of 586, we got the Pentium.
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41. Intel
Intel, founded in 1968 by Bob Noyce and Gordon Moore is the world's largest manufacturer of computer chips.
It has been challenged by AMD – Advanced Micro Devices (especially since they broke the GHz barrier first) – and Cyrix (now part of VIA).
Nearly all PCs are based on Intel's x86 architecture, in fact that’s how some people define the term PC.
And now Intel chips are used in MACs.
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42. Speaking of Gordon Moore
Moore observed an exponential growth (effectively doubling every couple years) in the number of transistors per integrated circuit and predicted that this trend would continue.
This is known as Moore’s Law.
There are similar predictions about memory, price, etc.
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43. CSIT 301 (Blum) Year of introduction Transistors 4004 1971 2,250 8008
Year of introduction
Transistors
4004
1971
2,250
8008
1972
2,500
8080
1974
5,000
8086
1978
29,000
286
1982
120,000
386™ processor
1985
275,000
486™ DX processor
1989
1,180,000
Pentium® processor
1993
3,100,000
Pentium II processor
1997
7,500,000
Pentium III processor
1999
24,000,000
Pentium 4 processor
2000
42,000,000
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44. CSIT 301 (Blum)

45. Portability
Instead of insisting on hardware’s backward compatibility, one can try to make software portable.
In describing software, portable means that the software can be run on a variety of computers. Another term used is independence, in this case machine or hardware independence. Assembly’s use of specifics of the registers makes it machine dependent.
One has to program at a higher level to gain machine independence.
Of course, someone must deal with the specifics of the hardware but it doesn’t have to be you (Layering).
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46. High-level language
Languages which are above assembly language, known as high-level languages, hide the details of the hardware and thus are portable or hardware independent.
Of course, high-level language are not directly executed. There is an in-between process or processes (compiling, translating, interpreting, linking, etc.) necessary before they can be executed.
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48. Generations
Another way of discussing this is to talk about generations.
1GL or first-generation language is machine language.
2GL or second-generation language is assembly.
3GL or third-generation language is a "high-level" programming language, Fortran, C, Java, Visual Basic, etc.
4GL or fourth-generation language is a more descriptive language, closer to human language usually used to query databases.
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49. Instruction Set
One aspect of processor design is to determine what instructions will be supported.
There must be rules (syntax) for how instructions are expressed, so that the code can be parsed, one instruction distinguished from the next, the data (operand) separated from the action (operator).
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50. Number of operands
An example of syntax would be whether an operator is binary or unary
Binary operators take two operands
e.g. the Boolean operator AND
(x<y) AND (i=j)
Unary operators take one operand
E.g. the Boolean operator NOT
NOT(x<y)
Some ops are context dependent
- 5 (unary) versus 4-5 (binary)
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51. Operation versus Instruction
An operation such as addition, which is binary (takes two operands), can be coded using instructions that are unary (one operand) if there is a default location implied such as Accumulator A.
5 + 6 becomes
Load 5 (places data in acc. A)
Add 6 (adds number in Acc. A to new number)
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52. Where does the answer go?
Whether it’s or (Load 5, Add 6), there’s the question of what to do with the result.
We can again use the default location of Accumulator A to place the answer in, or we can include a third operand that indicates where the result should be placed.
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53. Store
Placing the result of an operation in memory is known as storing it. Thus with unary instructions, we would have
Load 5
Add 6
Store 7
The operand of the store is an address indicating where to store the answer, which is held in Accumulator A.
Or one might have just one instruction with three operands
Add 7, 5, 6
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54. Addressing Modes
The “7” in the previous example was clearly an address. But this raises the question as to what were the operands in the two previous instructions (Load and Add).
For those instructions, the operand might have been the actual numbers one wanted added or the addresses of numbers one wanted added.
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55. More than one kind of add
By “Add” one typically means the latter case on the previous slide. The operand is not the number to be added but the address of the number to be added.
(Think variables.)
A designer can include a distinct add instruction, Add Immediate, in which the operand is the actual number to be added.
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56. Add Indirect
In another version of addition, the operand is an address, and the data at that address is also an address, and the actual number to be added is located at the second address.
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57. A short program Acc. A: XXX
Address
Value
LOAD 4 1
ADD INDIRECT 5 2
ADD IMMEDIATE 6 3
STOP 4 5 6 7 8
Acc. A: XXX
The arrow indicates the program counter, we assume it has not executed the statement it points to.
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58. A short program
Address
Value
LOAD 4 1
ADD INDIRECT 5 2
ADD IMMEDIATE 6 3
STOP 4 5 6 7 8
Acc. A: 5
The Load 4 instruction has been executed. The value at location 4 (which is a 5) has been loaded into the accumulator.
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59. A short program
Address
Value
LOAD 4 1
ADD INDIRECT 5 2
ADD IMMEDIATE 6 3
STOP 4 5 6 7 8
Acc. A: 12
The Add Indirect 5 instruction has been executed. One goes to location 5 to find a value of 6. That 6 is an address, thus one goes to location 6 to find a value of 7 and that is added to the 5 waiting in the accumulator. The result of 12 is placed in the accumulator.
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60. A short program
Address
Value
LOAD 4 1
ADD INDIRECT 5 2
ADD IMMEDIATE 6 3
STOP 4 5 6 7 8
Acc. A: 18
The Add Immediate 6 instruction has been executed. The value 6 is data which is added to the 12 waiting in the accumulator. The result of 18 is placed in the accumulator.
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61. The Stop Instruction
Recall that in what is actually executed (machine code, not assembly) the instructions themselves are numbers.
Thus it is crucial to know within a single instruction which numbers correspond to an operation and which numbers are operands.
Similarly on the level of the program itself, the processor needs to know where the program ends as there may be data stored after it.
In a machine with an operating system, it is more a notion of returning (control) than of stopping or halting.
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62. Recap so far So there were issues about the number of operands.
Recall that we have a fetch-execute cycle – first an instruction is retrieved from memory and then acted upon.
With unary instructions adding two numbers and storing the result required three instructions, that’s three fetches and three executions.
With ternary instructions it can be done with one instruction, one fetch and one execute. The execution is now more complicated but we have saved time on fetches.
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63. Recap so far (Cont.)
More operators means more complicated circuitry, the load and store aspects of the instruction would have to built into each separate instruction.
There is a speed versus complexity issue. And complexity also brings the issue of cost along with it.
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64. Recap so far (Cont.)
After determining the number of operands, came the issue of what the operands mean.
Are they data, addresses of data, or addresses of addresses of data?
Either we can decide to support all of these types of instructions (addressing modes) and choose complexity. Or we can choose to support only some of them and sacrifice efficiency.
You can eliminate Add Immediate if you always store the values you want to add.
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65. Data Types
Apart from addressing, another issue is the type of data the operation is acting on.
The process for adding integers is different from the process for adding floating point numbers.
So one may have separate ADD and FADD for the addition of integers and floats respectively.
Furthermore, one may need to add instructions to convert from one type to another.
To add an integer to a float, convert the integer to a float and then add the floats.
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66. References Computer Architecture, Nicholas Carter
Digital Computer Electronics, Albert P. Malvino and Jerald A. Brown
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