1. Regulation of metabolic pathways

2. Bacterial control of gene expression
Operon: cluster of related genes with on/off switch
Three Parts:
Promoter – where RNA polymerase attaches
Operator – “on/off”, controls access of RNA poly
Genes – code for related enzymes in a pathway

3. Regulatory gene: produces repressor protein that binds to operator to block RNA poly

4. Repressible Operon (ON  OFF)
Inducible Operon (OFF  ON)

5. Repressible Operon Normally ON Anabolic (build organic molecules)
Organic molecule product acts as corepressor  binds to repressor to activate it
Operon is turned OFF
Eg. trp operon

6. trp operon

7. Inducible Operon Normally OFF Catabolic (break down food for energy)
Repressor is active  inducer binds to and inactivates repressor
Operon is turned ON
Eg. lac operon

8. lac operon

9. Typical human cell: only 20% of genes expressed at any given time
Different cell types (with identical genomes) turn on different genes to carry out specific functions
Differences between cell types is due to differential gene expression

10. Eukaryotic gene expression regulated at different stages

11. Chromatin Structure:
Tightly bound DNA less accessible for transcription
DNA methylation: methyl groups added to DNA; tightly packed;  transcription
Histone acetylation: acetyl groups added to histones; loosened;  transcription

13. Transcription Initiation:
Control elements bind transcription factors
Enhances gene expression

14. Transcription Initiation Complex
Enhancer regions bound to promoter region by activators

15. Regulation of mRNA:
micro RNAs (miRNAs) and small interfering RNAs (siRNAs) can bind to mRNA and degrade it or block translation

20. Embryonic Development: Zygote  Organism
Cell Division: large # identical cells through mitosis
Cell Differentiation: cells become specialized in structure & function
Morphogenesis: “creation of form” – organism’s shape

21. Determination: irreversible series of events that lead to cell differentiation

22. Cytoplasmic determinants: maternal substances in egg distributed unevenly in early cells of embryo

23. Induction: cells triggered to differentiate
Cell-Cell Signals: molecules produced by one cell influences neighboring cells
Eg. Growth factors

25. Pattern formation: setting up the body plan (head, tail, L/R, back, front)

26. Morphogens: substances that establish an embryo’s axes

27. Homeotic genes: master control genes that control pattern formation (eg. Hox genes)

28. Control of Cell Cycle: Proto-oncogene = stimulates cell division
Tumor-suppressor gene = inhibits cell division
Mutations in these genes can lead to cancer

29. Proto-oncogene  Oncogene

30. Genes involved in cancer:
Ras gene: stimulates cell cycle (proto-oncogene)
Mutations of ras occurs in 30% of cancers
p53 gene: tumor-suppresor gene
Functions: halt cell cycle for DNA repair, turn on DNA repair, activate apoptosis (cell death)
Mutations of p53 in 50+% of cancers

31. Active oncogenes + loss of tumor-suppressor genes
Cancer results when mutations accumulate (5-7 changes in DNA)
Active oncogenes + loss of tumor-suppressor genes
The longer we live, the more likely that cancer might develop

32. Bacteria vs. Viruses Bacteria Virus Prokaryotic cell
Most are free-living (some parasitic)
Relatively large size
Antibiotics used to kill bacteria
Not a living cell (genes packaged in protein shell)
Intracellular parasite
1/1000 size of bacteria
Vaccines used to prevent viral infection
Antiviral treatment

33. Viruses Very small (<ribosomes) Components = nucleic acid + capsid
Nucleic acid: DNA or RNA (double or single-stranded)
Capsid: protein shell
Some viruses also have viral envelopes that surround capsid
Limited host range (eg. human cold virus infects upper respiratory tract)
Reproduce within host cells

37. Simplified viral replicative cycle

38. Bacteriophage
Virus that infects bacterial cells

39. Lytic Cycle of T4 Phage

40. Bacteriophage Reproduction
Lytic Cycle:
Use host machinery to make copies of virus
Death of host cell by rupturing it (lysis)
Virulent phages replicate by this method
Lysogenic Cycle:
Phage DNA incorporated into host DNA and replicated along with it
Phage DNA = prophage
Temperate Phage: uses both methods of replication

41. Lytic Cycle vs. Lysogenic Cycle

42. Animal viruses have a membranous envelope
Host membrane forms around exiting virus
Difficult for host immune system to detect virus

43. Retrovirus RNA virus that uses reverse transcriptase (RNA  DNA)
Newly made viral DNA inserted into chromosome of host
Host transcribes viral DNA (= provirus) to make new virus parts
Example: HIV (Human Immunodeficiency Virus)

44. HIV = Retrovirus

45. HIV Infects white blood cells HIV+: provirus (DNA inserted)
AIDS: active viral reproduction

46. Vaccines
Weakened virus or part of pathogen that triggers immune system response

47. Emerging viruses = mutation of existing viruses

48. Viroids Small, circular RNA molecules that infect plants
Cause errors in regulatory systems that control plant growth
Eg. coconut palms in Philippines

49. Prions
Misfolded, infectious proteins that cause misfolding of normal proteins
Eg. mad cow disease (BSE),Creutzfeldt-Jakob disease (humans), scrapie (sheep)

50. Diseases caused by prions
Prions act slowly – incubation period of at least 10 years before symptoms develop
Prions are virtually indestructible (cannot be denatured by heating)
No known cure for prion diseases

51. Tools of Genetic Engineering
Restriction enzymes (restriction endonucleases): used to cut strands of DNA at specific locations (restriction sites)
Restriction Fragments: have at least 1 sticky end (single-stranded end)
DNA ligase: joins DNA fragments
Cloning vector: carries the DNA sequence to be cloned (eg. bacterial plasmid)