1. Physical and Cognitive Development in Early Adulthood13
Physical and Cognitive Development in Early Adulthood
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Physical Functioning
Primary Aging--senescence
Basic underlying inevitable aging process
Gray hair, changes in visual acuity
Secondary Aging
Products of environmental influences, health habits, or disease; neither inevitable nor experienced by all adults
May interact with social class
See Figure 13.1 (page 350)
Social class differences appear to be primary aging, but developmental psychologists consider them to be secondary aging.
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3. The Brain and Nervous System
Some parts of the brain produce new neurons
Enriched environments seem to help
Growth spurts in the brain
Frontal lobe growth from ages 17 – 22
Response inhibition cortex control of the limbic system from the mid-to late 20s, e.g., impulse control
Response inhibition helps us to weigh choices more carefully by slowing down and regulating the limbic system – the emotional part of the brain.
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4. The Brain and Nervous System
Gradual loss of speed
Affects every bodily function
Result of gradual changes at neuronal level
Loss of dendrites
Slowing of the firing rate of nerves
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5. The Brain and Nervous System Sex Differences
Men have a lower proportion of white matter in the left brain compared with right brain
May produce superior spatial perception
Women have equal portions of gray matter in each brain hemisphere
May explain gender differences in emotions
Ratio of gray to white matter is associated with individual differences in performance on verbal tasks for males, but not for females
Gray matter – made up of cell bodies and axon terminals.
White matter contains myelinated axons that connect one neuron to another.
Other differences:
Some listening tasks activate the left hemisphere in men and the right hemisphere in women.
Men and women use different areas of the brain to determine location of sound.
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Other Body Systems
Young adults have better physical skills on all measures when compared to older adults.
Stronger
Faster
Better immune systems
Better eyesight
Quicker adaptation
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Other Body Systems
Declines in Physical Functioning over the adult years
Losses that appear later in life start in early adulthood.
However, losses may not be discernable for several years
Table 13.2 represents primary aging
See Table 13.1 (page 354)
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8. Other Body Systems Heart and Lungs
Maximum oxygen uptake (VO2max)
Reflects the ability of the body to take in and transport oxygen to body organs
Systematic decline with age
Aerobic exercise can improve VO2max at nearly any age
See Figure 13.2 (page 356)
Maximum oxygen uptake (VO2max)
1% per year decline while exercising beginning between 35 and 40.
Decline in heart function may reflect the cumulative effects of a sedentary lifestyle.
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Physical Functioning
Strength and Speed
Longitudinal study of men showed a loss of grip strength over a 9 year period
Strength peaks in the 20’s and early 30’s
However, younger adults are also more active, affecting strength and speed
Reproductive Capacity
Women’s reproductive capacity begins to drop in mid-20s
Men’s capacity drops much more slowly
Fertility problems in women are seen as part of the normal aging process.
Because men have the capacity to be fertile throughout life, fertility problems in men are associated with disease or abnormal developmental process.
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10. Figure 13.1 Changes in Grip Strength
UPDATE TO COME
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11. Physical Functioning Immune System Functioning
Thymus gland and bone marrow produce
B cells and T cells
B cells
Produce antibodies to fight off external threats
T cells
Defend against internal threats, such as transplanted organs, cancer cells, and viruses
Decline in number and efficiency with age
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Physical Functioning
Thymus gland
Central to aging process
Largest in adolescence, then shrinks
Lower functioning leads to less-effective T cells
Declines in immune system may be primary aging or may be secondary aging in response to stress or depression.
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13. Health Habits and Personal Factors
7 healthy habits initially identified by longitudinal research ( )
Getting physical exercise
Not smoking
Not drinking
Not over- or undereating
No snacking
Eating breakfast
Getting regular sleep
Alameda County Study – major longitudinal study of health habits. Data collected in 1965, 1974, and 1983.
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14. Health Habits and Personal Factors
Poorer health habits lead to higher risk of mortality, disease, and disability
Additional research links physical exercise and lower risk of death
Lower BMI (Body Mass Index: weight to height ratio) numbers in women associated with lower risks of death
Alameda County Study – major longitudinal study of health habits. Data collected in 1965, 1974 and 1983.
BMI – body mass index.
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15. Health Habits and Personal Factors Social Support
Adequate amounts lower risk of disease, death, and depression
Effects hold across diverse age groups
May boost immune system functioning .
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Health Habits and Personal Factors A Sense of Control: Perceived Control
Self-efficacy--belief in one’s ability to perform some action or to control one’s behavior or environment to reach some goal
Internal locus of control—attribute cause of many consequences to the self, not external factors
Optimism may also boost the immune system
Pessimism appears especially problematic over age 45
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17. Health and Wellness Sexually Transmitted Diseases (STDs)
Bacterial STDs
Caused by microorganisms that can be eradicated with antibiotics
Chlamydia—transmitted through intimate genital contact
Women three times as likely as men to suffer from it but can remain symptom-free
Unfortunately undiagnosed chlamydia can lead to pelvic inflammatory disease and infertility
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18. Sexually Transmitted Diseases
Other bacterial STDs
Gonorrhea
Declined in recent years
But new strains more resistant to antibiotics
Causes long-term damage to reproductive systems
Syphilis
Can lead to serious mental disorders and death
African American rates remain high
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19. Sexually Transmitted Diseases Viral STDs:
Often can be controlled but considered incurable
Genital Herpes
Acquired through intercourse or oral sex
20-30% of adults affected
Periodic attacks
Genital Warts
Caused by human papillomavirus
Visible symptoms are warts
New vaccine may be effective
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20. Sexually Transmitted Diseases
HIV/AIDS
Over one million cases in U.S.
Over 30 million cases in sub-Saharan Africa
Transmitted through exchange of bodily fluids
Male homosexual rates remain high
Prevention: Behavioral changes
Less risky sexual behavior
Use of condoms
Risky sexual behaviors include multiple partners and lack of protection.
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21. Intimate Partner Abuse
Physical or other behavior designed to intimidate or harm an intimate partner or former partner
Prevalence
25% of women and 8% of men have been physically abused by a partner
50% of African American women have been abused
Hispanic women have higher rates of abuse
Critical factor may be poverty, not race
Rates for gay men and lesbian women probably about 25% but may be underreported
Intimate Partner Abuse – physical acts or other behaviors intended to intimidate or harm an intimate partner.
Intimates are couples who date, cohabitate, or are engaged, married, or former partners.
See Figure 13.4 on page 363.
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22. Figure 13.2 Worldwide Rates of Female Physical Abuse
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23. Intimate Partner Abuse Causes
Cultural attitudes
Women are regarded as property
Gender-role prescriptions
High in Japanese women, based on belief that men are absolute authorities over wives and children
Personality traits
Same cluster of traits in heterosexual and homosexual abusers
Tendency toward irrational jealousy
Control of relationship
Sudden mood swings
Quick temper
Aggressive men and unemployed men are frequent abusers
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24. Intimate Partner Abuse
Abuse victims
More likely to have been abused as children
Young women between 16 and 24 more likely to be abused than older women
May reflect less ability of young women to act independently of the abuser
May be more likely to be caring for young infants
May be undereducated
Alcohol and drug problems common with abusers and victims.
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25. Intimate Partner Abuse
Effects of abuse
Women may develop anxiety, depression, shame, and low self-esteem
Witnessing abuse influences negative developmental outcomes in children
Prevention
Vigorous law enforcement of abuse
Temporary shelters
Training programs for victims stressing problem-solving skills to provide opportunities
Feelings intensify if the victim believes they are trapped in the situation.
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26. Intimate Partner Abuse
Sexual Violence: episodes of partner abuse in which an individual uses force to coerce another into engaging in sexual acts
¾ of incidents occur in context of some kind of relationship
14-25% of women affected; 3% of men are victims
Date rape often premeditated
Can cause sexual dysfunctions and post-traumatic stress disorder
Date rape may be more traumatic than rapes perpetrated by strangers.
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27. Mental Health Problems Causes
Young adulthood high incidence
Highest expectations and highest levels of role conflict and role strain may occur then
May lead to anxiety and depression
Researchers are focusing on biological causes
Mental illness runs in families
Disturbances in specific brain functions occur
Interaction of biology and the environment
Roles have to be learned – spouse, worker, parent.
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28. Anxiety and Mood Disorders
Phobias – irrational fear of an object, person, place, or situation
Learned through association
Therapeutic interventions involve unlearning the association
May be “free-floating”
Depression
Rates higher in early adulthood than in adolescence or middle age
May result from intimacy issues and loneliness
Can be a recurrent problem
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29. Personality Disorders
Inflexible pattern of behavior that leads to difficulties in social, educational, and occupational functioning
May relate to stressful breakups
Behaviors start in mid- or late adolescence
Can remain problematic throughout life
Surveys suggest as many as 50% of college students engage in binge drinking.
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30. Mental Health Problems Schizophrenia
Characterized by false beliefs (delusions) and false sensory experiences (hallucinations)
Delusions of grandeur
Delusions of persecution
Auditory hallucinations, such as hearing voices
May be helped by antipsychotic medications
See Table 13.2 on Page 366.
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31. Substance Use and Abuse
Alcoholism and drug addiction peak between 18 and 40
Rates are higher for men than women
Binge drinking (5+ drinks on one occasion) common among college students
Physical and psychological dependence and physical tolerance may occur
Increase in risky behaviors
See Table 13.2 on Page 366.
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Cognitive Changes
“Post Formal Thought”
Labouvie-Vief , Kohlberg, William Perry
Later thinking reflects thinking skills that are more relative and reflect complex thought
Contextual validity – learning how to solve problems associated with social roles and occupations
Basseches – dialectical thought
Attempts to describe fundamental process of change and the dynamic relationships through which change occurs
Different kind of thinking than formal operations proposes
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Cognitive Changes
King and Kitchener
Reflective judgment occurs more in early adulthood
Analyze arguments and underlying assumptions
Theories on post-formal thought still speculative with little current empirical research
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Intelligence
IQ scores
Remain stable across early adulthood
Seattle Longitudinal study suggests that intelligence test scores rise slightly in adulthood before dropping as adults reach age 60
Crystallized Intelligence
Ability to do daily tasks, such as read a newspaper
Depends heavily on education and experience
Remains steady throughout early and middle adulthood
Fluid Intelligence
Speed measures of abstract reasoning
Steady decline throughout lifespan
Werner Shaie – Seattle Longitudinal Study.
See Figure 13.5 on page 369.
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35. Figure 13.3 Seattle Data on IQ Scores
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36. Post-Secondary Education
Any kind of formal schooling following high school
Developmental Impact
Economic value of completing a degree
Earn more promotions
Less often unemployed
Higher aspirations are inspired during college years
New socialization opportunities arise
See Figure 13.6 on page 372.
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37. Figure 13.4 U.S. College Completion Rates
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38. Traditional and Nontraditional Students
Enroll in school full-time directly after graduation
Now only one-quarter of enrollees
Half obtain a degree within 6 years
Non-traditional
May delay entry into college
Independent from parents
Employed full time
Enrolled part time
Have children
Possess a GED rather than a high school diploma
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39. Traditional and Nontraditional Students
Traditional students more often pursue bachelor degrees
Non-traditional students more often enroll in two-year colleges
Less often complete degrees than traditional students
Non-traditional students tend to have less of a social network on campus, thus
Support from the institution is critical for successful management of the conflicting demands of school, family, and work
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40. Students with Disabilities
Post-secondary education now required to serve all people with disabilities
Now about 9% of college population
College must provide modifications to facilities and special education services
Extra time for tests is most frequent accommodation
Receive lower course grades than their peers
Perceive college faculty to be inhospitable
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41. Gender and the College Experience
60% of college students are now female
Females also have higher graduation rates
Women study more
Women’s entrance exam scores lower than men’s
Allows more men to enter prestigious programs
Men party more and may be more influenced by peer pressure and behavior
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42. Race and the College Experience
White or Asian-American students have higher rates of college completion within six years
For African- and Hispanic American students
Strong sense of ethnic identity is associated with persistence and academic performance
May help by providing belonging to the college community
Cognitive and social development for African-American students appears higher in historically black colleges than in predominantly white schools
17% of Native Americans, 24% of Asian Americans and 28% of Hispanic Americans drop out compared to 35% of whites. African American rates are 44%.
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