1. Unit III: Ecosystem Ecology
Chapter 6-Population and Community Ecology

2. I. Levels of Organization
Organism→Species→Population→
Community→Ecosystem→Biosphere

3. I. Population Abundance and Distribution
Populations are dynamic: constantly changing; inputs and outputs
Population Characteristics:
Size (N): Total number of individuals within a defined area at a given time.
Density: number of individuals per unit area. Used to set hunting and fishing limits, food supply

4. Distribution: How they occupy space; how they are distributed with respect to one another
Clumping: most common; pack of wolves, flock of birds, school of fish; cluster where resources available, helps protect from predators, better hunting success.
Uniform distribution: common where resources are scarce; distance between neighboring individuals is maximized to avoid competition or avoid territoriality; penguins, creosote bush (terpenes)
Random dispersion: least common; position of each individual is independent of the other individuals; occurs in habitats where environmental conditions and resources are consistent; dandelions, oyster larvae carried by ocean currents.

6. Factors that influence population size: Environmental Resistance Factors
Density Dependent Factors: Influence an individuals probability of survival and reproduction in a manner that depends on the size of the population
competition, predation, disease
Density Independent Factors: have same effect on an individual's probability of survival
fire, drought, hurricane, pest spraying

7. Limiting Factor/Limiting Resource: A resource that a population cannot live without and which occurs in quantities lower than the population would require to increase in size.
Carrying Capacity: (K) the population size of the
species that the environment can sustain
indefinitely, given the food, habitat, water and
necessities available in the environment

8. Growth Models
Growth rate: Number of offspring an individual can produce in a given period of time, minus deaths of the individual or offspring during the same period of time.
Intrinsic Growth Rate (r) is the rate at which a population would grow if it had unlimited resources.

9. Exponential Growth Model
Exponential Growth Model: Populations growing at a fixed rate. When population are not limited by resources their growth is very rapid, as more growths occur with each step in time. Represented by a J-shaped curve

10. Logistical Growth Model
Populations can not grow at an exponential rate indefinitely.
Logistic growth: exponential at first but slows as population reaches carrying capacity. Sigmoid (s
shaped) curve

11. Population growth is affected by biotic or intrinsic factors that are built into the genetic basis of each species. This is known as biotic potential: is the maximum size a population would get if there were nothing holding it back.

12. Together, biotic potential and environmental resistance determine carrying capacity (K)
Environmental Resistance + Biotic Potential =Carrying Capacity

13. Variations on the Logistic Growth Model
Some populations will overshoot K, there will be a lack of resources and the population will experience a crash.
Reindeer of St. Paul Island.

14. Variations to Logistical growth
Predator-Prey Cycles
Canada Lynx and Snowshoe Hare-records estimated from Hudson Bay Co. show oscillations of abundance, with lynx pop. Peaking 1-2 years after the hare population

15. Reproductive Strategies
Biotic or Intrinsic factors are specific to each species and include
Age of reproductive maturity
Number of offspring per reproductive event
Number of reproductive events per lifetime
These factors together are referred to as fecundity/fertility.
r strategists (r-selected species)
High intrinsic growth rate because they reproduce often and produce
large number of off spring. Populations do not typically remain near K,
but exhibit rapid growth followed by overshoots and die-offs
K strategists (K-selected species)
Low intrinsic growth rate so pop increases slowly until reach K.
Fluctuations are small

17. Survivorship Curves Late Loss Constant Loss Early Loss Late Loss

18. Species Interactions
Competition: Struggle of individuals to obtain a limited resource
Competitive Exclusion Principle: Two species competing for same limited resource cannot coexist

20. Resource Partitioning: results from competition, two species divide a resources based on behavior or morphology.

21. Predation: Use or one species by another species
True Predators: Kill prey and consume most of what they kill
Parasitism: One species (the parasite) feeds on part of another organism (the host) usually by living on or in the host. Parasite benefits/host is harmed.
Mutualism: two species or a network of species interact in a way that benefits both.
Commensalism: an interaction that benefits one species but has little, if any effect on the other species

22. Parasitism

23. Mutualism

24. Commensalism

25. Indicator: Amphibians, Birds, Butterflies
Habitat Loss, Increases in UV, Parasites, Pollution (pesticides), Climate change, Overhunting Butterflies as Indicator Species

26. Keystone: American Alligator
Dig holes that hold freshwater during dry spells and serve as refuges for aquatic life and provide fresh water

27. Foundation: create and enhance habitat that benefit other species
Beaver: build a dam, create a pond, where other organisms live. Bat and bird species that regenerate deforested areas and spread fruit plants in their droppings.

28. Composition of a Community Changes over Time
Primary Succession
series of community changes which occur on an entirely new habitat which has never been colonized before.; Gradual establishment of various biotic communities in a lifeless area. NO SOIL/NO BOTTOM SEDIMENT;
Examples of such habitats would include newly exposed or deposited surfaces, such as landslips, volcanic lava and debris, elevated sand banks and dunes, quarried rock faces.
Pioneer Species: First to colonize an area
Secondary Succession: the series of community changes which take place on a previously colonized, but disturbed or damaged habitat. Examples include areas which have been cleared of existing vegetation (such as after tree-felling in a woodland) and destructive events such as fires.
Secondary succession is usually much quicker than primary succession for the following reasons:
There is already an existing seed bank, Root systems undisturbed in the soil,the fertility and structure of the is suitable for growth and colonization.
Fairly frequent, moderate disturbance leads to greatest diversity

30. Aquatic Succession

31. Theory of Island Biogeography
Number of types of species influenced by size and distance from mainland
Larger habitats have more species
Closer to other habitat = more species.

32. Central Park-New York City

33. Reintroducing Wolves in Yellowstone