1. What are Rhetorical Strategies?

2. What is rhetoric? And why bother studying it?
“the art of effective expression (speaking & writing) and the persuasive use of language”
We study rhetoric because:
it helps us to better recognize appeals to our ethos, pathos, & logos (more on this to come)
it helps us to become more effective persuasive speakers and writers

3. Rhetorical Strategies Used by Speakers and Writers
Rhetorical devices are the nuts and bolts of speech and writing; the parts that make a communication work. Separately, each part of is meaningless, but once put together they create a powerful effect on the listener/reader.

4. Examples?
What are some of the techniques by which people use language persuasively?
What strategies do you use to try and convince someone to do something?
Does that change depending on you who are speaking to?

5. What do these people do WELL that captures your attention?

6. Rhetorical Strategies
The strategies that follow are just some of the ways to make your writing/speaking more persuasive…

7. Parallel Structure
Parallel Structure-repetition of grammatically similar words, phrases, clauses, or sentences to emphasize a point or stir the emotions of a reader/listener. Used to create a sense of rhythm, balance, and order in writing or speech.
Chiasmus=“inverted parallelism” (i.e. eat to live, not live to eat)

8. Parallel Structure
The coach told the players: “You will get some sleep tonight, you will not eat too much right before the game, and you will do some warm-up exercises before the game.”

9. Parallelism
Writing structures that are grammatically parallel helps the reader understand the points better because they flow more smoothly.
If there is anyone out there who still doubts…who still wonders…who still questions

10. Rhetorical Question
Rhetorical Question-question not answered by writer b/c the answer is obvious or obviously desired. Used in persuasion to encourage the reader/listener to reflect on what the answer must be.
“How much longer must our people endure this injustice?”

11. Hypophora
A common technique is to start a speech with a hypophora, in which the speaker first asks a question and then answers it.
Similar to rhetorical question, except this time you provide the ANSWER

12. Allusion
Short, informal reference to famous person, event, story. Relies on reader/listener to be familiar with the reference and hidden meaning. Used to stimulate ideas, associations, add extra information.
If I want to persuade you to wash your hands, I may say “thou shalt wash thy hands”. I am trusting that you respect the commandments and, hence, my statement.

13. Allusion
By using allusion, you not only associate yourself with the ideas of the original text but also create a bond with the audience by evoking share knowledge
The words government of the people, by the people, and for the people are lifted from the “Gettysburg Address”

14. Analogy
Comparison between two things that are alike in certain respects. Used in persuasion to demonstrate the logic of one idea by showing how it is similar to an accepted idea.
(“Pupils are more like oysters than sausages. The job of teaching is not to stuff them and then seal them up, but to help them reveal the riches within.”-Sydney Harris)

15. Alliteration
Repetition of initial consonant sounds. Used to call attention to a phrase and fixes it in the reader’s/listener’s mind.
(i.e. “Let us go forth to lead the land we love.”- John F. Kennedy Inaugural speech)

16. Humor
Humor can be used to make you like the writer/speaker and “win you over”
Hyperbole-exaggeration for emphasis/effect (“at night she needs a paint scraper to take off her makeup”)
Sarcasm (“Obama doesn’t have the experience of being Miss Wasilla!”)
Irony (verbal, situational, dramatic) (“it is ironic that the window store had all of its windows broken by vandals”)
Understatement (From Monty Python: Army officer loses a leg, “Stings a bit.”)

17. Repetition
Repetition can be effective in creating a sense of structure and power. In both speech and literature, repeating small phrases can ingrain an idea in the minds of the audience.
Yes, we can, to opportunity and prosperity. Yes, we can heal this nation. Yes, we can repair this world. Yes, we can.

18. Antithesis
A figure of speech in which sharply contrasting ideas are juxtaposed in a balanced or parallel phrase or grammatical structure
Obama is famous for having said “There are no red states or blue states. There are only the United States of America.”
"It was the best of times, it was the worst of times, it was the age of wisdom, it was the age of foolishness, it was the epoch of belief, it was the epoch of incredulity, it was the season of Light, it was the season of Darkness, it was the spring of hope, it was the winter of despair, we had everything before us, we had nothing before us, we were all going direct to Heaven, we were all going direct the other way." (Dickens, A Tale of Two Cities)

19. Figurative speech
People like to think in metaphors. The image of bending the arc of history up towards hope is powerful. Figurative speech tends to work best when set off by concrete images.
“the arc of history with the backyards of Des Moines and the living rooms of Concord and the front porches of Charleston”

20. Tricolon
A tricolon is a list of three, or a sentence in which there are three parts or clauses. The cumulative effect of three has a powerful effect on an audience.
Here, the backyards, living rooms and front porches build a strong picture of “plain folks”

21. Polysyndeton
using several conjunctions in close succession, especially where some might be omitted—used to stress the importance of each item
$5 and $10 and $15

22. Juxtaposition the act of positioning close together
Obama talks about the “not-so-young people who braved the bitter cold and scorching heat to knock on doors of perfect strangers”
The juxtaposition of “bitter cold” and “scorching heat” stresses the extreme conditions in which people campaigned for Obama, convincing the audience of their dedication

23. Varied Sentence Length
Varying the sentence length is always a good way to strengthen any writing style, be it speech writing or essays.
--“To the best campaign team ever assembles in the history of politics: you made this happen, and I am forever grateful for what you’ve sacrificed to get it done. But above all, I will never forget who this victory truly belongs to. It belongs to you. It belongs to you.”

24. Audience When attempting to persuade, consider your audience.
For example, you would not use caustic satire to persuade a potential employer to hire you.
(“The food served here is great if you are a teenager with two dollars in your pocket.”)

25. Active Voice v. Passive Voice
Active Voice- The boy hit the ball. The subject of this sentence actively hits the ball.
Passive Voice- The ball was hit by the boy. The subject sits passively, doing nothing while some outside agent performs the action.

26. Here’s why it is better rhetoric to use active voice…
Active voice sentences are shorter.
The fighter punched Ali and dodged the uppercut. (Active= 8 words)
Ali was punched by the fighter, and then an uppercut was dodged by him. (Passive= 14 words)

27. Active sentences are clear and to the point
When you use passive voice, you have to use boring phrases like “by so-and-so” or leave this out and let your sentence become unclear.
The airplane was flown to Bermuda (by the pilot).
My car has been driven to Dallas. (By whom? A car thief? The teletubbies?)

28. To Identify the Evil Passive Voice
Is there a form of the verb “to be” such as is/am/are/was/were/be/being/been? (Can’t create passive voice without this)
Could you insert “by so-and-so” after the verb? (the dog was fed (by the owner)
ID the subject and main verb. Is the subject “doing” the action? Or is it sitting passively?

29. Example of an excellent rhetorical speech
Keep a list of the strategies you notice the speaker uses
Write down his THESIS. What is his main point?