1. National Unification

2. The Crimean War Revolutions in 1848 undermined the Concert of Europe
Paved the way for mid-century Crimean War
The Ottoman Empire slowly receded in power
Found itself prey to continual attacks by the Russians

3. Only British intervention kept the Ottomans on life support
When Napoleon III got concessions from the Ottoman sultan to protect Christian minorities, the Russians demanded the same treatment
The British and French encouraged the sultan to resist Russian pressure

4. When the war ensued, the Russian navy shattered the Ottoman fleet and moved into the Turkish provinces of Moldavia and Wallachia
France and Britain demanded that the Russians evacuate the two provinces or face war
Even though Russia complied, they declared war anyway

5. Austria’s actions were most controversial
Russia had helped Austria crush rebellion in 1849
Instead of repaying the favor, Austria exploited the Russian predicament by moving into Moldavia and Wallachia

6. The Crimean War was the initial modern conflict
Poor communication, strategic errors and disease cost an inordinate number of lives
Florence Nightingale was the only hero of the struggle

7. To end the war, the combatants negotiated the Treaty of Paris
Russia agreed to demilitarize the Black Sea and halt expansion into the Balkans
The Crimean War encouraged states to pursue national interests with little regard for the effects on the international order

8. Napoleon III considered the war a great victory and was falsely convinced of France’s strength
British leaders felt disappointed at the cost and outcome and fell into isolation
Austria also isolated itself
Russia was determined to continue its expansion at the first opportunity

9. The Unification of Italy
The Italian peninsula had lain disunited since the time of the Roman Empire
The diverse city states in the late 15th and early 16th centuries lost their independence as a result of foreign invasion
Since then, foreign powers dominated political life in Italy

10. Nationalism revived the dreams of a united Italy
Nationalists looked to the leadership of Piedmont-Sardinia and exploit the increasing tenuous position of Austria
Many Italian nationalists preferred the creation of a united republic, including a takeover of the Papal States

11. The resurgence of Italian nationalism was fueled by two republican advocates: Guiseppe Mazzini and Giuseppe Garibaldi
Most of the practical work for Italian unity was accomplished by Camillo di Cavour

12. The role of Piedmont-Sardinia
In , King Charles Albert granted his people a constitution and then attempted to unite the other Italian states in a war of liberation against Austria
He abdicates in 1849, and turns power over to his son Victor Emmanuel II
In 1852, he appoints Cavour prime minister

13. Cavour looks to modernize the Piedmontese state
He favored a realistic approach to Italian unity (realpolitik), which would require a foreign ally
Cavour convinced Napoleon III of France to join Piedmont-Sardinia in a joint attack on Austria
Piedmont and France defeated the Austrian army setting off revolutions in other northern Italian city states

14. Cavour urged Garibaldi to take advantage of the revolutionary situation brewing in the Kingdom of the Two Sicilies
With just over a thousand Red Shirts, he rallied the countryside to his cause and moved up the peninsula

15. Cavour and Victor Emmanuel met Garibaldi south of Rome and asked him to relinquish his conquest to Piedmont Sardinia
Plebiscites confirmed the unification of the northern and southern halves of the peninsula
March 1861, the new Italian kingdom was proclaimed and Victor Emmanuel as its first monarch

16. Italy completed its unification by gaining Venetia in 1866 and Rome in 1871
Though united, Italy experienced significant problems
Italy often compensated aggressively seeking colonies and attempting to regain unredeemed Italian speaking territories

17. The Unification of Germany
Conflicts between the HRE and the papacy in the Middle Ages stymied either from unifying Germany
Due to its elective nature, the emperor never became a strong absolute ruler
Religious conflict further splintered German politics

18. The existence of two German powers – Austria and Prussia – checked either from consolidating the smaller German states into one nation
Austria, under Metternich, dominated German politics after the Congress of Vienna

19. Following the Revolutions of 1848, Austria imposed upon Prussia the Humiliation of Olmutz where Prussia guaranteed not to word toward German unity

20. When William I inherited the Prussian throne, he set out to reestablish Prussia’s power
He introduced reforms in the army
The Liberals in the Reichstag, who resented the conservative influence of the army, opposed the kings reforms
Neither the king or the Reichstag would budge

21. The Work of Bismarck
To solve the crisis, William turned in 1862 to Otto von Bismarck, appointing him chancellor
He had gained wide diplomatic experience representing Prussia to France, Russia and the German Confederation
Bismark acted as the consummate practitioner or realpolitik

22. Bismarck did not have a predetermined plan for brining the unification of Germany
He took advantage of opportunities as they presented to him
To deal with the political crisis in Prussia, Bismarck turned the tables on the Liberals in the Reichstag, claiming they had no constitutional power to block needed reforms

23. When the Reichstag refused the kings taxes to implement the army reforms, Bismarck simply instructed the bureaucracy to collect the taxes anyway
To unify Germany, Bismarck waged three separate wars

24. In 1864, the Denmark moved into two mainly German provinces
Bismarck suggested a joint approach between Austria and Prussia to win the provinces back
They easily defeated their enemy in the Danish War, with both Austria and Prussia occupying the provinces of Schleswig and Holstein

25. This joint occupation offered opportunity for conflict between Austria and Prussia
Citing a violation of the occupation agreement, Prussia went to war with Austria
In the ensuring Austro-Prussian War (or Seven Weeks War), Prussia overwhelmed the Austrians

26. Losing the war, Austria had to bow out of German affairs
Prussia annexed the states of northern Germany, and Bismarck created the North German Confederation
The Reichstag hailed Bismarck’s achievement by retroactively approving his illegally collected taxes

27. The mostly Catholic German states stood outside the union
Bismarck convinced these states to join in an alliance with the North German Confederation should war break out with France
When a vacancy for the Spanish caused a problem between France and Prussia, France declared war

28. The French were easily defeated in the Franco-Prussian War
In January 1871, Bismarck’s work was complete with the proclamation of the German Empire with William I as Kaiser
Bismarck helped engineer a federal constitution, though power was still exercised in an authoritarian fashion

29. Government ministers reported to the Kaiser, not the Reichstag, and Bismarck effectively concentrated key positions in his own hands
The new German Empire immediately upset the balance of power in Europe
Its economic and military potential threatened to dwarf its neighbors