Nutrition, Metabolism, and Body Temperature Regulation

Nutrition, Metabolism, and Body Temperature Regulation
24 P A R T A Nutrition, Metabolism, and Body Temperature Regulation

Nutrition Nutrient – a substance that promotes normal growth, maintenance, and repair Major nutrients – carbohydrates, lipids, and proteins Other nutrients – vitamins and minerals (and technically speaking, water)

USDA Food Guide Pyramid
Figure 24.1a

Nutrition Figure 24.1b

Carbohydrates Complex carbohydrates (starches) are found in bread, cereal, flour, pasta, nuts, and potatoes Simple carbohydrates (sugars) are found in soft drinks, candy, fruit, and ice cream

Carbohydrates Glucose is the molecule ultimately used by body cells to make ATP Neurons and RBCs rely almost entirely upon glucose to supply their energy needs Excess glucose is converted to glycogen or fat and stored

Carbohydrates The minimum amount of carbohydrates needed to maintain adequate blood glucose levels is 100 grams per day Starchy foods and milk have nutrients such as vitamins and minerals in addition to complex carbohydrates Refined carbohydrate foods (candy and soft drinks) provide energy sources only and are referred to as “empty calories”

Lipids The most abundant dietary lipids, triglycerides, are found in both animal and plant foods Essential fatty acids – linoleic and linolenic acid, found in most vegetables, must be ingested Dietary fats: Help the body to absorb vitamins Are a major energy fuel of hepatocytes and skeletal muscle Are a component of myelin sheaths and all cell membranes

Fatty deposits in adipose tissue provide:
Lipids Fatty deposits in adipose tissue provide: A protective cushion around body organs An insulating layer beneath the skin An easy-to-store concentrated source of energy

Prostaglandins function in:
Lipids Prostaglandins function in: Smooth muscle contraction Control of blood pressure Inflammation Cholesterol stabilizes membranes and is a precursor of bile salts and steroid hormones

Lipids: Dietary Requirements
Higher for infants and children than for adults The American Heart Association suggests that: Fats should represent less than 30% of one’s total caloric intake Saturated fats should be limited to 10% or less of one’s total fat intake Daily cholesterol intake should not exceed 200 mg

Proteins Complete proteins that meet all the body’s amino acid needs are found in eggs, milk, milk products, meat, and fish Incomplete proteins are found in legumes, nuts, seeds, grains, and vegetables

Daily intake should be approximately 0.8g/kg of body weight
Proteins Proteins supply: Essential amino acids, the building blocks for nonessential amino acids Nitrogen for nonprotein nitrogen-containing substances Daily intake should be approximately 0.8g/kg of body weight

Proteins: Synthesis and Hydrolysis
All-or-none rule All amino acids needed must be present at the same time for protein synthesis to occur Adequacy of caloric intake Protein will be used as fuel if there is insufficient carbohydrate or fat available

Proteins: Synthesis and Hydrolysis
Nitrogen balance The rate of protein synthesis equals the rate of breakdown and loss Positive – synthesis exceeds breakdown (normal in children and tissue repair) Negative – breakdown exceeds synthesis (e.g., stress, burns, infection, or injury) Hormonal control Anabolic hormones accelerate protein synthesis

Essential Amino Acids Figure 24.2

Organic compounds needed for growth and good health
Vitamins Organic compounds needed for growth and good health They are crucial in helping the body use nutrients and often function as coenzymes Only vitamins D, K, and B are synthesized in the body; all others must be ingested Water-soluble vitamins (B-complex and C) are absorbed in the gastrointestinal tract B12 additionally requires gastric intrinsic factor to be absorbed

Vitamins Fat-soluble vitamins (A, D, E, and K) bind to ingested lipids and are absorbed with their digestion products Vitamins A, C, and E also act in an antioxidant cascade

Seven minerals are required in moderate amounts
Calcium, phosphorus, potassium, sulfur, sodium, chloride, and magnesium Dozens are required in trace amounts Minerals work with nutrients to ensure proper body functioning Calcium, phosphorus, and magnesium salts harden bone

Minerals Sodium and chloride help maintain normal osmolarity, water balance, and are essential in nerve and muscle function Uptake and excretion must be balanced to prevent toxic overload

Metabolism – all chemical reactions necessary to maintain life
Cellular respiration – food fuels are broken down within cells and some of the energy is captured to produce ATP Anabolic reactions – synthesis of larger molecules from smaller ones Catabolic reactions – hydrolysis of complex structures into simpler ones

Metabolism Enzymes shift the high-energy phosphate groups of ATP to other molecules These phosphorylated molecules are activated to perform cellular functions

Energy-containing nutrients are processed in three major stages
Stages of Metabolism Energy-containing nutrients are processed in three major stages Digestion – breakdown of food; nutrients are transported to tissues Anabolism and formation of catabolic intermediates where nutrients are: Built into lipids, proteins, and glycogen Broken down by catabolic pathways to pyruvic acid and acetyl CoA Oxidative breakdown – nutrients are catabolized to carbon dioxide, water, and ATP

Figure 24.3

Oxidation-Reduction (Redox) Reactions
Oxidation occurs via the gain of oxygen or the loss of hydrogen Whenever one substance is oxidized, another substance is reduced Oxidized substances lose energy Reduced substances gain energy Coenzymes act as hydrogen (or electron) acceptors Two important coenzymes are nicotinamide adenine dinucleotide (NAD+) and flavin adenine dinucleotide (FAD)

Mechanisms of ATP Synthesis: Substrate-Level Phosphorylation
High-energy phosphate groups are transferred directly from phosphorylated substrates to ADP ATP is synthesized via substrate-level phosphorylation in glycolysis and the Krebs cycle Figure 24.4a

Mechanisms of ATP Synthesis: Oxidative Phosphorylation
Uses the chemiosmotic process whereby the movement of substances across a membrane is coupled to chemical reactions

Is carried out by the electron transport proteins in the cristae of the mitochondria Nutrient energy is used to pump hydrogen ions into the intermembrane space A steep diffusion gradient across the membrane results When hydrogen ions flow back across the membrane through ATP synthase, energy is captured and attaches phosphate groups to ADP (to make ATP)

Figure 24.4b

Carbohydrate Metabolism
Since all carbohydrates are transformed into glucose, it is essentially glucose metabolism Oxidation of glucose is shown by the overall reaction: C6H12O6 + 6O2  6H2O + 6CO ATP + heat Glucose is catabolized in three pathways Glycolysis Krebs cycle The electron transport chain and oxidative phosphorylation

Carbohydrate Catabolism
Figure 24.5

A three-phase pathway in which:
Glycolysis A three-phase pathway in which: Glucose is oxidized into pyruvic acid NAD+ is reduced to NADH + H+ ATP is synthesized by substrate-level phosphorylation Pyruvic acid: Moves on to the Krebs cycle in an aerobic pathway Is reduced to lactic acid in an anaerobic environment

Glycolysis Figure 24.6 Glucose Key: Phase 1 Sugar activation 2 ATP
Krebs cycle Electron transport chain and oxidative phosphorylation ATP ATP ATP Glucose Key: Phase 1 Sugar activation 2 ATP = Carbon atom 2 ADP Pi = Inorganic phosphate Fructose-1,6- bisphosphate P P Phase 2 Sugar cleavage Dihydroxyacetone phosphate Glyceraldehyde phosphate P P Pi 2 NAD+ 4 ADP 2 NADH+H+ 4 ATP Phase 3 Sugar oxidation and formation of ATP 2 Pyruvic acid 2 NADH+H+ O2 O2 2 NAD+ To Krebs cycle (aerobic pathway) 2 Lactic acid Figure 24.6

Krebs cycle Electron transport chain and oxidative phosphorylation ATP ATP ATP Glucose Key: Phase 1 Sugar activation 2 ATP = Carbon atom 2 ADP Pi = Inorganic phosphate Figure 24.6

Krebs cycle Electron transport chain and oxidative phosphorylation ATP ATP ATP Glucose Key: Phase 1 Sugar activation 2 ATP = Carbon atom 2 ADP Pi = Inorganic phosphate Fructose-1,6- bisphosphate P P Figure 24.6

Krebs cycle Electron transport chain and oxidative phosphorylation ATP ATP ATP Glucose Key: Phase 1 Sugar activation 2 ATP = Carbon atom 2 ADP Pi = Inorganic phosphate Fructose-1,6- bisphosphate P P Phase 2 Sugar cleavage Dihydroxyacetone phosphate Glyceraldehyde phosphate P P Figure 24.6

Krebs cycle Electron transport chain and oxidative phosphorylation ATP ATP ATP Glucose Key: Phase 1 Sugar activation 2 ATP = Carbon atom 2 ADP Pi = Inorganic phosphate Fructose-1,6- bisphosphate P P Phase 2 Sugar cleavage Dihydroxyacetone phosphate Glyceraldehyde phosphate P P Pi 2 NAD+ 2 NADH+H+ Phase 3 Sugar oxidation and formation of ATP Figure 24.6

Krebs cycle Electron transport chain and oxidative phosphorylation ATP ATP ATP Glucose Key: Phase 1 Sugar activation 2 ATP = Carbon atom 2 ADP Pi = Inorganic phosphate Fructose-1,6- bisphosphate P P Phase 2 Sugar cleavage Dihydroxyacetone phosphate Glyceraldehyde phosphate P P Pi 2 NAD+ 4 ADP 2 NADH+H+ 4 ATP Phase 3 Sugar oxidation and formation of ATP 2 Pyruvic acid Figure 24.6

Krebs cycle Electron transport chain and oxidative phosphorylation ATP ATP ATP Glucose Key: Phase 1 Sugar activation 2 ATP = Carbon atom 2 ADP Pi = Inorganic phosphate Fructose-1,6- bisphosphate P P Phase 2 Sugar cleavage Dihydroxyacetone phosphate Glyceraldehyde phosphate P P Pi 2 NAD+ 4 ADP 2 NADH+H+ 4 ATP Phase 3 Sugar oxidation and formation of ATP 2 Pyruvic acid O2 To Krebs cycle (aerobic pathway) Figure 24.6

Krebs cycle Electron transport chain and oxidative phosphorylation ATP ATP ATP Glucose Key: Phase 1 Sugar activation 2 ATP = Carbon atom 2 ADP Pi = Inorganic phosphate Fructose-1,6- bisphosphate P P Phase 2 Sugar cleavage Dihydroxyacetone phosphate Glyceraldehyde phosphate P P Pi 2 NAD+ 4 ADP 2 NADH+H+ 4 ATP Phase 3 Sugar oxidation and formation of ATP 2 Pyruvic acid 2 NADH+H+ O2 O2 2 NAD+ To Krebs cycle (aerobic pathway) 2 Lactic acid Figure 24.6

Phase 1: Sugar activation
Glycolysis: Phase 1 and 2 Phase 1: Sugar activation Two ATP molecules activate glucose into fructose-1,6-diphosphate Phase 2: Sugar cleavage Fructose-1,6-bisphosphate is cleaved into two 3-carbon isomers Bishydroxyacetone phosphate Glyceraldehyde 3-phosphate

Phase 3: Oxidation and ATP formation
Glycolysis: Phase 3 Phase 3: Oxidation and ATP formation The 3-carbon sugars are oxidized (reducing NAD+) Inorganic phosphate groups (Pi) are attached to each oxidized fragment The terminal phosphates are cleaved and captured by ADP to form four ATP molecules

The final products are:
Glycolysis: Phase 3 The final products are: Two pyruvic acid molecules Two NADH + H+ molecules (reduced NAD+) A net gain of two ATP molecules

Krebs Cycle: Preparatory Step
Occurs in the mitochondrial matrix and is fueled by pyruvic acid and fatty acids

Pyruvic acid is converted to acetyl CoA in three main steps: Decarboxylation Carbon is removed from pyruvic acid Carbon dioxide is released

Oxidation Hydrogen atoms are removed from pyruvic acid NAD+ is reduced to NADH + H+ Formation of acetyl CoA – the resulting acetic acid is combined with coenzyme A, a sulfur-containing coenzyme, to form acetyl CoA

Krebs Cycle An eight-step cycle in which each acetic acid is decarboxylated and oxidized, generating: Three molecules of NADH + H+ One molecule of FADH2 Two molecules of CO2 One molecule of ATP For each molecule of glucose entering glycolysis, two molecules of acetyl CoA enter the Krebs cycle PLAY Krebs Cycle

Figure 24.7 Pyruvic acid from glycolysis Cytosol CO2 NAD+ CoA NADH+H+
Electron transport chain and oxidative phosphorylation Krebs cycle CO2 NAD+ CoA NADH+H+ Mitochondrion (fluid matrix) Acetyl CoA ATP ATP ATP Oxaloacetic acid Citric acid NADH+H+ (pickup molecule) CoA (initial reactant) NAD+ Malic acid Isocitric acid NAD+ Krebs cycle CO2 NADH+H+ Fumaric acid a-Ketoglutaric acid CoA CO2 FADH2 NAD+ Succinic acid Succinyl-CoA NADH+H+ FAD Key: CoA = Carbon atom GTP GDP + Pi Pi = Inorganic phosphate CoA = Coenzyme A ADP ATP Figure 24.7

Figure 24.7 Cytosol Pyruvic acid from glycolysis CO2 NAD+ CoA NADH+H+
Electron transport chain and oxidative phosphorylation Krebs cycle CO2 NAD+ CoA NADH+H+ Mitochondrion (fluid matrix) Acetyl CoA ATP ATP ATP Key: = Carbon atom Pi = Inorganic phosphate CoA = Coenzyme A Figure 24.7

Electron transport chain and oxidative phosphorylation Krebs cycle CO2 NAD+ CoA NADH+H+ Mitochondrion (fluid matrix) Acetyl CoA ATP ATP ATP Oxaloacetic acid Citric acid (pickup molecule) CoA (initial reactant) Krebs cycle Key: = Carbon atom Pi = Inorganic phosphate CoA = Coenzyme A Figure 24.7

Electron transport chain and oxidative phosphorylation Krebs cycle CO2 NAD+ CoA NADH+H+ Mitochondrion (fluid matrix) Acetyl CoA ATP ATP ATP Oxaloacetic acid Citric acid (pickup molecule) CoA (initial reactant) Isocitric acid Krebs cycle Key: = Carbon atom Pi = Inorganic phosphate CoA = Coenzyme A Figure 24.7

Electron transport chain and oxidative phosphorylation Krebs cycle CO2 NAD+ CoA NADH+H+ Mitochondrion (fluid matrix) Acetyl CoA ATP ATP ATP Oxaloacetic acid Citric acid (pickup molecule) CoA (initial reactant) Isocitric acid NAD+ Krebs cycle CO2 NADH+H+ a-Ketoglutaric acid Key: = Carbon atom Pi = Inorganic phosphate CoA = Coenzyme A Figure 24.7

Electron transport chain and oxidative phosphorylation Krebs cycle CO2 NAD+ CoA NADH+H+ Mitochondrion (fluid matrix) Acetyl CoA ATP ATP ATP Oxaloacetic acid Citric acid (pickup molecule) CoA (initial reactant) Isocitric acid NAD+ Krebs cycle CO2 NADH+H+ a-Ketoglutaric acid CoA CO2 NAD+ Succinyl-CoA NADH+H+ Key: = Carbon atom Pi = Inorganic phosphate CoA = Coenzyme A Figure 24.7

Electron transport chain and oxidative phosphorylation Krebs cycle CO2 NAD+ CoA NADH+H+ Mitochondrion (fluid matrix) Acetyl CoA ATP ATP ATP Oxaloacetic acid Citric acid (pickup molecule) CoA (initial reactant) Isocitric acid NAD+ Krebs cycle CO2 NADH+H+ a-Ketoglutaric acid CoA CO2 NAD+ Succinic acid Succinyl-CoA NADH+H+ Key: CoA = Carbon atom GTP GDP + Pi Pi = Inorganic phosphate CoA = Coenzyme A ADP ATP Figure 24.7

Electron transport chain and oxidative phosphorylation Krebs cycle CO2 NAD+ CoA NADH+H+ Mitochondrion (fluid matrix) Acetyl CoA ATP ATP ATP Oxaloacetic acid Citric acid (pickup molecule) CoA (initial reactant) Isocitric acid NAD+ Krebs cycle CO2 NADH+H+ Fumaric acid a-Ketoglutaric acid CoA CO2 FADH2 NAD+ Succinic acid NADH+H+ FAD Succinyl-CoA Key: CoA = Carbon atom GTP GDP + Pi Pi = Inorganic phosphate CoA = Coenzyme A ADP ATP Figure 24.7

Electron transport chain and oxidative phosphorylation Krebs cycle CO2 NAD+ CoA NADH+H+ Mitochondrion (fluid matrix) Acetyl CoA ATP ATP ATP Oxaloacetic acid Citric acid (pickup molecule) CoA (initial reactant) Malic acid Isocitric acid NAD+ Krebs cycle CO2 NADH+H+ Fumaric acid a-Ketoglutaric acid CoA CO2 FADH2 NAD+ Succinic acid FAD Succinyl-CoA NADH+H+ Key: CoA = Carbon atom GTP GDP + Pi Pi = Inorganic phosphate CoA = Coenzyme A ADP ATP Figure 24.7

Electron transport chain and oxidative phosphorylation Krebs cycle CO2 NAD+ CoA NADH+H+ Mitochondrion (fluid matrix) Acetyl CoA ATP ATP ATP Oxaloacetic acid Citric acid NADH+H+ (pickup molecule) CoA (initial reactant) NAD+ Malic acid Isocitric acid NAD+ Krebs cycle CO2 NADH+H+ Fumaric acid a-Ketoglutaric acid CoA CO2 FADH2 NAD+ Succinic acid Succinyl-CoA NADH+H+ FAD Key: CoA = Carbon atom GTP GDP + Pi Pi = Inorganic phosphate CoA = Coenzyme A ADP ATP Figure 24.7

Electron Transport Chain
Food (glucose) is oxidized and the released hydrogens: Are transported by coenzymes NADH and FADH2 Enter a chain of proteins bound to metal atoms (cofactors) Combine with molecular oxygen to form water Release energy The energy released is harnessed to attach inorganic phosphate groups (Pi) to ADP, making ATP by oxidative phosphorylation

Mechanism of Oxidative Phosphorylation
The hydrogens delivered to the chain are split into protons (H+) and electrons The protons are pumped across the inner mitochondrial membrane by: NADH dehydrogenase (FMN, Fe-S) Cytochrome b-c1 Cytochrome oxidase (a-a3) The electrons are shuttled from one acceptor to the next

Mechanism of Oxidative Phosphorylation
Electrons are delivered to oxygen, forming oxygen ions Oxygen ions attract H+ to form water H+ pumped to the intermembrane space: Diffuses back to the matrix via ATP synthase Releases energy to make ATP PLAY InterActive Physiology ®: Muscular System: Muscular Metabolism

Electron Transport Chain ATP Synthase
Glycolysis Electron transport chain and oxidative phosphorylation Krebs cycle ATP ATP ATP H+ H+ H+ H+ Core Intermembrane space Cyt c e - e- Q 1 3 2 Inner mitochondrial membrane 2 H+ + 1 2 O2 H2O FADH2 FAD ADP + Pi ATP NADH + H+ + (carrying from food) e - NAD H+ Mitochondrial matrix Electron Transport Chain ATP Synthase Figure 24.8

Glycolysis Electron transport chain and oxidative phosphorylation Krebs cycle ATP ATP ATP H+ Core Intermembrane space Cyt c Q 1 3 2 Inner mitochondrial membrane NADH + H+ (carrying from food) e - NAD + Mitochondrial matrix Electron Transport Chain Figure 24.8

Glycolysis Electron transport chain and oxidative phosphorylation Krebs cycle ATP ATP ATP H+ H+ Core Intermembrane space Cyt c e - Q 1 3 2 Inner mitochondrial membrane FADH2 FAD NADH + H+ + (carrying from food) e - NAD Mitochondrial matrix Electron Transport Chain Figure 24.8

Glycolysis Electron transport chain and oxidative phosphorylation Krebs cycle ATP ATP ATP H+ H+ H+ Core Intermembrane space Cyt c e - e- Q 1 3 2 Inner mitochondrial membrane FADH2 FAD NADH + H+ + (carrying from food) e - NAD Mitochondrial matrix Electron Transport Chain Figure 24.8

Glycolysis Electron transport chain and oxidative phosphorylation Krebs cycle ATP ATP ATP H+ H+ H+ H+ Core Intermembrane space Cyt c e - e- Q 1 3 2 Inner mitochondrial membrane FADH2 FAD NADH + H+ + (carrying from food) e - NAD Mitochondrial matrix Electron Transport Chain ATP Synthase Figure 24.8

Glycolysis Electron transport chain and oxidative phosphorylation Krebs cycle ATP ATP ATP H+ H+ H+ H+ Core Intermembrane space Cyt c e - e- Q 1 3 2 Inner mitochondrial membrane FADH2 FAD ADP + Pi ATP NADH + H+ + (carrying from food) e - NAD H+ Mitochondrial matrix Electron Transport Chain ATP Synthase Figure 24.8

Glycolysis Electron transport chain and oxidative phosphorylation Krebs cycle ATP ATP ATP H+ H+ H+ H+ Core Intermembrane space Cyt c e - e- Q 1 3 2 Inner mitochondrial membrane 2 H+ + 1 2 O2 H2O FADH2 FAD ADP + Pi ATP NADH + H+ + (carrying from food) e - NAD H+ Mitochondrial matrix Electron Transport Chain ATP Synthase Figure 24.8

Electronic Energy Gradient
The transfer of energy from NADH + H+ and FADH2 to oxygen releases large amounts of energy This energy is released in a stepwise manner through the electron transport chain

Electronic Energy Gradient
The electrochemical proton gradient across the inner membrane: Creates a pH gradient Generates a voltage gradient These gradients cause H+ to flow back into the matrix via ATP synthase PLAY Electron Transport

Figure 24.9

ATP Synthase The enzyme consists of three parts: a rotor, a knob, and a rod Current created by H+ causes the rotor and rod to rotate This rotation activates catalytic sites in the knob where ADP and Pi are combined to make ATP

Structure of ATP Synthase
Figure 24.10

Summary of ATP Production
Figure 24.11

Glycogenesis and Glycogenolysis
Glycogenesis – formation of glycogen when glucose supplies exceed cellular need for ATP synthesis Glycogenolysis – breakdown of glycogen in response to low blood glucose Figure 24.12

Gluconeogenesis The process of forming sugar from noncarbohydrate molecules Takes place mainly in the liver Protects the body, especially the brain, from the damaging effects of hypoglycemia by ensuring ATP synthesis can continue

Lipid Metabolism Most products of fat metabolism are transported in lymph as chylomicrons Lipids in chylomicrons are hydrolyzed by plasma enzymes and absorbed by cells Only neutral fats are routinely oxidized for energy

Catabolism of fats involves two separate pathways
Lipid Metabolism Catabolism of fats involves two separate pathways Glycerol pathway Fatty acids pathway

Glycerol is converted to glyceraldehyde phosphate
Lipid Metabolism Glycerol is converted to glyceraldehyde phosphate Glyceraldehyde is ultimately converted into acetyl CoA Acetyl CoA enters the Krebs cycle

Fatty acids undergo beta oxidation which produces:
Lipid Metabolism Fatty acids undergo beta oxidation which produces: Two-carbon acetic acid fragments, which enter the Krebs cycle Reduced coenzymes, which enter the electron transport chain

Lipid Metabolism Figure 24.13

Lipogenesis and Lipolysis
Excess dietary glycerol and fatty acids undergo lipogenesis to form triglycerides Glucose is easily converted into fat since acetyl CoA is: An intermediate in glucose catabolism The starting molecule for the synthesis of fatty acids

Lipolysis, the breakdown of stored fat, is essentially lipogenesis in reverse Oxaloacetic acid is necessary for the complete oxidation of fat Without it, acetyl CoA is converted into ketones (ketogenesis)

Figure 24.14

Lipid Metabolism: Synthesis of Structural Materials
Phospholipids are important components of myelin and cell membranes

Lipid Metabolism: Synthesis of Structural Materials
The liver: Synthesizes lipoproteins for transport of cholesterol and fats Makes tissue factor, a clotting factor Synthesizes cholesterol for acetyl CoA Uses cholesterol to form bile salts Certain endocrine organs use cholesterol to synthesize steroid hormones

Excess dietary protein results in amino acids being:
Protein Metabolism Excess dietary protein results in amino acids being: Oxidized for energy Converted into fat for storage Amino acids must be deaminated prior to oxidation for energy

Deaminated amino acids are converted into:
Protein Metabolism Deaminated amino acids are converted into: Pyruvic acid One of the keto acid intermediates of the Krebs cycle These events occur as transamination, oxidative deamination, and keto acid modification

Amino Acid Oxidation Figure 24.15

Nutrition, Metabolism, and Body Temperature Regulation

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