1. DEFINING AND DESIGNING QUALITATIVE RESEARCH
Chapter 15

2. Qualitative Research
Generic terms for a wide array of research approaches (ethnography, case study, narrative research, etc.) that differ in purpose, approach, methods, and values from more traditional quantitative research

3. Comparison: Purpose/Goals
Qualitative
Contextualize findings
Interpret behavior
Understand perspectives
Discover
Quantitative
Generalize findings
Predict behavior
Provide causal explanations
Confirm

4. Comparison: Approach Qualitative Theory grounded in findings
Natural context
Inductive
Patterns and complexity
Relies on words
Holistic language
Quantitative
Theory grounds the study
Controls variables
Deductive
Components and norms
Relies on numbers
Precise abstract language

5. Comparison: Assumptions
Qualitative
Reality is socially constructed
Unstable world
Complex variables are difficult to measure
Symbolic interactionism roots
Quantitative
Reality is objective
Stable world
Variables can be identified and measured
Logical empiricism roots

6. Comparison: Methods Qualitative Focus on nature/essence
Fieldwork, naturalistic focus
Flexible, emergent
Purposive, small samples
Researcher as primary instrument
Quantitative
Focus on quantity/how much
Empirical, statistical focus
Precise, structured
Random, large samples
Inanimate instruments

7. Comparison: Role of Researcher
Qualitative
Personally involved
Empathic understanding
Inquiry is value bound
Quantitative
Detached and impartial
Objective portrayal
Inquiry is value free

8. Common Qualitative Characteristics
Concern for context and meaning
Naturally occurring settings
Human as instrument
Descriptive data
Emergent design
Inductive analysis

9. QL Problems=Focus of Inquiry
Not easy to quantify
Understood within a setting
Group activities over time
Roles and behaviors
Entire organizations
Things about which little is known
Closed cultures

10. Suggestions for Choosing a Problem
Interesting to you
Significant (contributes to knowledge or solves problem)
Reasonable time and complexity
YOU are not directly involved

11. Types of Research Questions
Particularizing – about specific context
Generic – about a broad population
Process – about how things work
Variance – about difference or extent
Instrumentalist – about observable data
Realist – about unobservable phenomena (feelings, beliefs)

12. Criteria for Evaluating QL Designs
Informational adequacy – maximizes potential understanding
Efficiency – data collection is cost and time efficient
Ethical considerations – participants not at risk

13. QL Sampling Is typically not random
Goal to select a representative sample
Use purposive samples sufficient to provide maximum understanding
Typically smaller than quantitative
Primary criterion is redundancy of information – known as data saturation

14. QL Sampling Strategies
Comprehensive
Convenience
Criterion
Critical Case
Deviant/Extreme
Homogenous
Intensity
Maximum Variation

15. More QL Sampling Strategies
Negative/Discrepant
Opportunistic
Random Purposeful
Snowball/Chain
Stratified Purposeful
Theoretical
Typical

16. QL Common Data Collection Techniques
Observations
Interviews
Documents or Artifacts

17. Comparing QL and QT Observation
Qualitative
More global
Complete description
More extended time
No a priori hypotheses
Narrative and words
Quantitative
More structured
Numeric summary
Less extended time
A priori hypotheses
Checklists and observation protocols

18. Observer Roles Complete/Covert Participant Participant as Observer
Observer as Participant
Complete Observer
Collaborative Partner

19. Potential Impact of Observation
Also called Observer Effect
Observer Expectation: Researcher expects certain behaviors based on prior knowledge of participants
Observer Bias: Observers attitudes and values influence observations and interpretations

20. Taken by researcher during observation
Field Notes
Taken by researcher during observation
Descriptive Component: describes the setting, the people, interactions, events, etc.
Observer Comments: observer reflections, interpretations, feelings, speculations, etc.

21. Interviews
Unstructured interview – conversational with questions arising from the situation
Semi-structured or partially structured interview – initial questions developed but may be modified during interview
Structured interview – predetermined questions with each interviewee asked the exact same questions

22. Guides for QL Interviewing
Use open-ended questions (cannot be answered with yes or no or simple responses)
Avoid leading questions (suggests a particular answer)
Avoid double-barreled questions (two questions in one)
Avoid confusing questions

23. Phenomenology Interviews
Three interview series recommended by Siedman
Interview 1: Context of the experience, focused life history
Interview 2: Reconstruct details of the experience
Interview 3: Reflect on meaning

24. Interview Advantages & Disadvantages
Large volume of data gathered quickly
Insight into perspectives
Unanticipated information revealed
Immediate follow-up and clarification
Disadvantages
Unwillingness to share
May provide false information
Time to collect and transcribe
Interviewing skills necessary

25. Focus Group Interviews
Interview groups of people at same time (typically 6-12)
More cost and time efficient
Socially oriented
Less researcher control
Not for emotionally charged topics
Not when there are unbalanced power dynamics
Group dynamics have impact

26. Interview Comparison One-on-One No group dynamic
Bias to moderator not peers
More individual input
Better top-of-mind & emotional insights
Easier to schedule
Better for sensitive topics
Focus Group
Group think
More socially acceptable answers
Not equal expression
Limited top-of-mind insights
Collective emotion
Harder to schedule
Good for brainstorming

27. Documents and Artifacts
Wide array of written, visual, and physical materials
Four categories
Public records
Personal documents
Physical materials
Researcher-generated documents

28. Sources Primary source – created by someone with firsthand experience
Secondary source – created by someone based on secondhand information

29. Ethical Considerations
Kind of information– potential to acquire sensitive information or information that may present ethical dilemma
Relationship to participant – possible difficulty in maintaining distance and cannot provide anonymity
Reciprocation – what is given back to the participants
Permissions – may be more difficult

30. Ethical Issues Related to Indigenous Study
Methods perceived as insensitive to culture and reflecting non-indigenous values
Understanding collective knowledge versus individual knowledge
Involvement of the community in designing and conducting research
Alternative world views

31. Ethical Issues Related to Technology Use
Privacy and use of public sites or wi-fi
Difficult to maintain anonymity
Transient populations
Inability to verify age or potentially vulnerable populations
Difficulty in obtaining informed consent
Accessibility for those with disabilities
Group site issues with confidentiality or potential for cyber attacks