1. 5. Chemical Processes
Products are being used as fuel for the transport
From either petrol-based material or from biomass
The most common biofuels
Used for transport purposes
DME, methanol, ethanol, butanol and diodiesel

2. The simplest ether that is a gas at normal temperature and pressure
Dimethy Ether (DME)
5-1.
Dimethy Ether
(DME)
The simplest ether that is a gas at normal temperature and pressure
Non-carcinogenic / highly flammable / CH3OCH3
Used fuel in diesel engines or blended with diesel
High cetane number (55-60) > diesel (40-55)
Short ignition time and better combustion than diesel
Under pressure, in liquid form
DME can be produced from synthesis gas or fossil raw material
Biomass using the gasification method
Dehydration of methanol to DME
5-2. Biodiesel
5-3. Rapeseed
Methyl Ester (RME)
5-4. Primary Alcohols
5-5. Ethanol from
Sugar Feedstock
5-6. Ethanol from
Starchy Feedstock
5-7. Ethanol from
Cellulose Feedstock

3. Fuel made from natural (biological) renewable resources
Biodiesel
5-2. Biodiesel
Fuel made from natural (biological) renewable resources
Used directly in conventional diesel motors (engines)
Advantages compared to diesel produce
Degradable / non-toxic / contains no sulfur
Releases less emissions during combustion
Transesterification => vegetable oil
Quality changes with storage (oxidative and hydrolytic reaction)
One of the most common kinds of biodiesel : rapeseed methyl ester
5-1. Dimethy Ether
(DME)
5-3. Rapeseed
Methyl Ester (RME)
5-4. Primary Alcohols
5-5. Ethanol from
Sugar Feedstock
5-6. Ethanol from
Starchy Feedstock
5-7. Ethanol from
Cellulose Feedstock

4. Rapeseed Methyl Ester (RME)
Alternative biofuel (diesel engines)
Advantages compared to diesel produced
Non-toxic and less flammable
Same cetane number, viscosity and density as diesel
No aromatic compounds
Produced from vegetable oils (rapeseed: 3 ton / hectare)
By-product of transestrification reaction
Glycerol : used in the cosmetics industry
Protein-rich cake: stock feed
Not possible to cultivate rapeseed every year (up to 4-6 years)
5-1. Dimethy Ether
(DME)
5-2. Biodiesel
5-4. Primary Alcohols
5-5. Ethanol from
Sugar Feedstock
5-6. Ethanol from
Starchy Feedstock
5-7. Ethanol from
Cellulose Feedstock

5. Rapeseed Methyl Ester (RME)
Transesterification of triglycerides to methyl ester and glycerol
5-1. Dimethy Ether
(DME)
5-2. Biodiesel
5-4. Primary Alcohols
5-5. Ethanol from
Sugar Feedstock
5-6. Ethanol from
Starchy Feedstock
5-7. Ethanol from
Cellulose Feedstock

6. Liquid bio-fuels (methanol, ethanol and butanol)
Primary Alcohols
5-4. Primary
Alcohols
Liquid bio-fuels (methanol, ethanol and butanol)
From sugarcane, sugar beet, wheat, barley, corn raw sugar, switch grass, agricultural residues, wood and many industrial wastes and corn stover
The most important characteristic of alcohols : octane number
0 = n-heptane
100 = iso-octnae (2,2,4-trimethyl pentane)
Ethanol and methanol have low centane numbers (8 and 5)
Only possible to use them in diesel engines
5-1. Dimethy Ether
(DME)
5-2. Biodiesel
5-3. Rapeseed
Methyl Ester (RME)
5-5. Ethanol from
Sugar Feedstock
5-6. Ethanol from
Starchy Feedstock
5-7. Ethanol from
Cellulose Feedstock

7. Produced can be used to make other related chemicals
Primary Alcohols
5-4. Primary
Alcohols
5-1. Dimethy Ether
(DME)
5-2. Biodiesel
5-3. Rapeseed
Methyl Ester (RME)
5-5. Ethanol from
Sugar Feedstock
5-6. Ethanol from
Starchy Feedstock
5-7. Ethanol from
Cellulose Feedstock
Cetane number :
15 = hepta methyl nonane
100 = n-hexadecane
Produced can be used to make other related chemicals
Ethyl acetate / acetic acid / acetaldehyde
Oxidation / esterification

8. Methanol
Colorless liquid without any particular smell at room temperature
High toxic, corrosive and flammable
Degradable relatively quickly / little harm to the environment
Produced from fossil fuel and biomass (cellulose material)
Gasfication (high temperature and pressure)
Blended with gasoline
M85 (85% methanol+15% gasoline)

9. Ethanol
Colorless liquid / used in many ways as a chemical
With regard to safety and environmental issues
Less toxic than gasoline, diesel or methnol
Broken down by bacteria to carbon dioxide and water
Blended with gasoline (add emulsifying agent /used otto engines)
E85 (85% ethanol+15% gasoline)
Raw material : Cellulose, waste from paper mills, excess wine
by fermentation of carbohydrates (sugar)
Sugarcane, sugar beet, corn

10. Butanol
Many similarities to bioethanol / comparative advantage
Easy to blend with gasoline in higher concentrations without any harm to engines
Higher energy content (30% higher)
Better able to tolerate water contamination
Low vapor pressure : easier to blend ethanol with gasoline
Without and modification to the engine
by fermentation of carbohydrates (same bioeethanol)
Sugarcane, sugar beet, corn

11. Ethanol from Sugar Feedstock
5-1. Dimethy Ether
(DME)
5-2. Biodiesel
5-3. Rapeseed
Methyl Ester (RME)
5-4. Primary Alcohols
5-6. Ethanol from
Starchy Feedstock
5-7. Ethanol from
Cellulose Feedstock
Ethanol from Sugarcane
Ethanol from Sugar Beet

12. Ethanol from Sugarcane
Easiest and most efficient processes
15% sucrose
Brazil > USA
Glycosidic bond can be broken down into two sugar unit, which are free and readily available for fermentation.
The remaining solid from the pressing is fibrous and usually used as a fuel in the sugar mill.
The cheapest bioethanol produced is from sugarcane in Brazil and the second cheapest is made from corn in the USA.

13. Ethanol from Sugar Beet
Large amounts of sucrose.
Disaccharide
Most of the european countries and russia, together with the US produce most of the sugar beet in the world.

14. Ethanol from Starchy Feedstock
5-1. Dimethy Ether
(DME)
5-2. Biodiesel
5-3. Rapeseed
Methyl Ester (RME)
5-4. Primary Alcohols
5-5. Ethanol from
Sugar Feedstock
5-7. Ethanol from
Cellulose Feedstock
Ethanol from Cereal Grains
Ethanol from Corn and Corn Stover

15. Ethanol from Cereal Grains
Process steps:
Milling of grains
Hydrolysis of starch to sugar units
Fermentation by yeast
Distillation
Removal of water from ethanol.
Distillation increases the ethanol concentration up to about 95%.
In order to remove the rest of the water from the ethanol solution it must be dried by different drying agents to a concentration of 99.9% ethanol, or absolute ethanol.
It is possible to produce 1L of absolute ethanol from about 3kg of wheat.

16. Ethanol from Corn and Corn Stover
Most common feedstock
Widely used in the USA
Two carbohydrates : glucose and xylose
The starch in corn is converted to glucose after grinding in a dry mill, reacting it with dilute acid and then reacting it with amylases.
The free glucose is then available for fermentation to ethanol.
Today, it is possible to use those parts of the plant, the stover, which includes stalk and leaves, as raw material for ethanol production.
ethanol production from corn stover is more effective when enzymatic hydrolysis and fermentation are performed simultaneously, often called SSF, instead of SHF.
delignification of pretreated corn stover improves enzymatic hydrolysis, but is a costly step and may cause some loss of sugar units.

17. Ethanol from Cellulose Feedstock
5-1. Dimethy Ether
(DME)
5-2. Biodiesel
5-3. Rapeseed
Methyl Ester (RME)
5-4. Primary Alcohols
5-5. Ethanol from
Sugar Feedstock
5-6. Ethanol from
Starchy Feedstock
Cellulose-rich biomass
Wood
Switch grass
Reed canary grass
Crop residues from food
Ethanol from lignocellulosic material includes two processes:
Chemical – Hydrolysis
Biological hydrolysis - Fermentation

18. Scheme of ethanol production from cellulose feedstock (p172 F.6.7)
Ethanol from Cellulose Feedstock
5-7. Ethanol
from Cellulose
Feedstock
5-1. Dimethy Ether
(DME)
5-2. Biodiesel
5-3. Rapeseed
Methyl Ester (RME)
5-4. Primary Alcohols
5-5. Ethanol from
Sugar Feedstock
5-6. Ethanol from
Starchy Feedstock
Scheme of ethanol production from cellulose feedstock (p172 F.6.7)

19. Ethanol from Cellulose Feedstock
5-1. Dimethy Ether
(DME)
5-2. Biodiesel
5-3. Rapeseed
Methyl Ester (RME)
5-4. Primary Alcohols
5-5. Ethanol from
Sugar Feedstock
5-6. Ethanol from
Starchy Feedstock
CHAP Process
CASH Process
Ethanol from Switch Grass
Ethanol from Reed Canary Grass
Ethanol from Alfalfa

20. CHAP Process Based on the : Disadvantage Cellulose-rich material
lignocellulosic material
Low temperature
Hydrochloric acid
Disadvantage
Corrosion problem
High capital investment
Dangers associated with concentrated acid
Dioxin emissions
This process was developed for cellulose-rich raw materials since high concentration of the acid may cause degradation of the pentoses in hemicellulose to furfural derivatives.
The ethanol yield is usually about 35%.
corrosion problems and the need for higher capital investment and dangers associated with the recovery of the concentrated acid make this method less attractive.
during combustion of lignin that is contaminated with hydrochloric acid there is some risk of dioxin emissions.

21. CASH Process Based on the : Sawdust Residues from trees
Hydrolysis – dilute sulfuric acid at a 200°C
Fermentation – sugars by yeast to ethanol
It has been shown that by using SO2 and dilute sulfuric acid in two steps, this increases the sugar and ethanol yield, since the amount of inhibitors such as furfural is decreased.
the ethanol yield is about 30% of the energy in the raw material and there are also by-products, with up to 40% of the energy content in solid form, which can be used as biofuel.

22. Ethanol from Switch Grass
Perennial C4 species
Grown in central USA
Remove lignin and hemicelluloses
This grass is grown in central USA as a fodder crop or for soil conservation.
The lignocellulosic biomass has been used to produce ethanol with various yields.
By pretreating the raw material to remove lignin and hemicelluloses, it is possible to significantly improve the hydrolysis of cellulose.

23. Ethanol from Reed Canary Grass
Perennial, 2m tall, upright straw, broad leaves, long panicle
Grows naturally
Consist of Various material
This grass grows naturally in EU, asia and north america, especially in wet and humus-rich soil.
Reed canary grass consists mainly of cellulose, hemicellulose and lignin, but also proteins, lipids and a relatively high content of inorganic material.
The main sugars after hydrolysis of reed canary grass are glucose, xylose and also arabinose; the amount of hexose in the stem varies between 38 and 45% of the dry weight of the material and pentose about 22-25%.
The lignin content varies between 18 and 21% of the dry weight.
the grass has very good potential as an alternative and a complement to short rotation woody crops and also to softwood feedstocks such as spruce, for ethanol production in the future.

24. Ethanol from Alfalfa
Fuel, feed and industrial materials
Consists of various material
Alfalfa consists mainly of celluloses, hemicelluloses, lignin, pectin and proteins. Therefore, it is a potential feedstock for ethanol production and also other chemicals.

25. 6. Power Generation from Biomass
Renewable resource
Adventage
Low cost of biomass compared to fossil fuel.
Security of supply and reduction of transport distances since biomass is often locally produced and some part of biomass can be used in electricity production.
No net CO2 emissions.
Improvements of the economics of fuel production from biomass, since the electricity generated as a by-product can be used or sold and so reduce production costs dramatically
Two interesting biomasses are corn and corn stover, since corn has been produced for food and also ethanol production in many countries and corn stover has been used in ethanol production and also recently pelletised with very good results in generating heat and power.
Combining heat and power production from biomass is a very common concept in many industries.

26. Several types of fuel cell
Fuel Cells
Several types of fuel cell
Alkaline fuel cell (AFC)
Direct methanol fuel cell (DMFC)
Polymer electrolyte fuel cell (PEFC)
Phosphoric acid fuel cell (PAFC)
Solid oxide fuel cell (SOFC) operating at high temperatures( °C)
Molten carbonate fuel cell (MCFC)
Proton exchange membrane fuel cell (PEMFC)
A fuel cell is an electrochemical process for the production of electrical energy and heat.
The concept is that chemical energy is converted into electricity and also heat without any combustion step.
The process is clean(no emissions) and quite and also effective compared to conventional combustion engines.
The excess heat from fuel cells can be used to heat water.
A fuel cell usually consists of an electrolyte surrounded (encased) by two electrodes : a negative electrode (anode) and a positive electrode (cathode).
6-1. Fuel Cells

27. 𝐶𝐻 3 𝑂𝐻+ 𝐻 2 𝑂 → 𝐶𝑂 2 +6 𝐻 + +6 𝑒 − (𝑎𝑚𝑜𝑑𝑒)
Fuel Cells
6-1. Fuel Cells
𝐶𝐻 3 𝑂𝐻+ 𝐻 2 𝑂 → 𝐶𝑂 2 +6 𝐻 + +6 𝑒 − (𝑎𝑚𝑜𝑑𝑒)
1.5 𝑂 2 +6 𝐻 + +6 𝑒 − →3 𝐻 2 𝑂 (𝑐𝑎𝑡ℎ𝑜𝑑𝑒)
In the direct methanol fuel cell(DMFC), an aqueous solution of ethanol is oxidised at the anode and reduced at the cathode.
The methanol concentration plays a significant role in keeping a stable power output.

28. Principle of operation of DMFC to produce electricity (p175 F.6.8)
Fuel Cells
6-1. Fuel Cells
Principle of operation of DMFC to produce electricity (p175 F.6.8)

29. Fuel Cells
6-1. Fuel Cells
In a fuel cell, oxygen and hydrogen are released by oxidation of methanol producing electricity.
The electricity generated in a fuel cell can be used to power some vehicles instead of direct combustion of other fuels.
El-vehicles are quite, more effective and produce no emissions compared to fossil fuel-using vehicles.
There are three types of vehicles using electricity as the energy source:
Rechargeable battery vehicles, limited electricity
El-hybrid vehicles, one el-engine and one combustion engine
Fuel cells vehicles, one el-engine

30. Fuel Cells Conclusion
Fuel cells can be used in the next generation of vehicles as energy source