1. Ch 1 Approaches to Psychology

2. Pre Scientific Psychology
Socrates ( BCE) and Plato ( BCE)
Socrates
Plato
Socrates and his student Plato believed that the mind was separate from the body, that it continued to exist after death, and that ideas were innate.

3. Pre Scientific Psychology
Rene Descartes ( )
Descartes, like Plato, believed in soul (mind) body separation but speculated on how the immaterial mind and the physical body communicated.

4. Pre Scientific Psychology
John Locke ( )
biografieonline.it/img/bio/John_Locke.jpg
Locke held that the mind is a tabula rasa or blank sheet at birth and experience writes on it.
He would be an advocate of nurture rather than nature

5. Pre Scientific Psychology
NATURE
NURTURE
Pre Scientific Psychology
How are ideas formed?
Some ideas are inborn
The mind is a blank slate
Socrates
Aristotle
Plato
Locke 1

6. From Speculation to Science: How Psychology Developed
Prior to 1879
Physiology and philosophy scholars studying questions about the mind
Wilhelm Wundt ( ) University of Leipzig, Germany
Campaigned to make psychology an independent discipline, Established the first laboratory for the study of psychology 1879
Wundt believed focus of psychology should be examining people’s awareness of their immediate experience 2

7. The Battle of the “Schools” in the U. S. : Structuralism vs
The Battle of the “Schools” in the U.S.: Structuralism vs. Functionalism
Physicists were studying how matter was made up of basic particles (atoms, neutrons…)
Titchener (Leipzig, Germany in 1879) used this thinking to study the structure of the brain and nervous system to better understand the mind -- & called it Structuralism
Introspection: a process by which a person makes careful, systematic self-observations of one’s own conscious experience.
Used “introspection” to conduct studies (look within)
“How did my dropping of the ball make you feel?”
Just remember 2-T Titchener used structuralism and introspection
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8. The Battle of the “Schools” in the U. S. : Structuralism vs
The Battle of the “Schools” in the U.S.: Structuralism vs. Functionalism
William James established the school of functionalism.
The real task of psychology is to investigate the function, or purpose, of consciousness rather than its structure.
Developed the technique of longitudinal research, which consists of interviewing, testing, and observing one person over a long period of time.
Such a system permits the psychologist to observe and record the person’s development and how he or she reacts to different circumstances.
Influenced by Darwin (natural selection)
James also published the first Psychology textbook () & is considered the father of American Psychology
Functionalism Studies how the brain and body functions as a unit. Our behaviors allow us to carry out our daily tasks. Every part of the body has a specific function.
4, 5

9. The Battle of the “Schools” in the U. S. : Structuralism vs
The Battle of the “Schools” in the U.S.: Structuralism vs. Functionalism
Functionalism won … but the importance of this early debate on how to conduct Psychology was that it established the Scientific Method as the way to gain insight into the workings of the human mind. 6

10. In the Early 1900’s, in Vienna, Austria: Psychoanalytic
Founded Sigmund Freud
Freud’s with people with psychological problems led him to believe that people are influenced by unconscious forces…that is, thoughts, memories, and desires that are outside conscious awareness
Emphasized the importance of the unconscious mind, inner conflict, sexual urges and anxiety 7

11. Freud’s Ideas: Controversy and Influence
Freud believed that unconscious conflict, especially sexual urges, plays a central role in behavior.
This was scandalous and offensive for several reasons
1st: If we are influenced by forces we are not aware of, how can we be masters of our own minds? Where does free will come in?
2nd: In an era of sexual repression, the emphasis on sexuality was quite upsetting to many people.
The controversial nature of Freud’s ideas caused great resistance in the field of psychology, and his ideas were not well received among academic circles.
Despite of (or maybe even because of) the controversy, Freud’s ideas moved into the main stream, influencing thought in psychology, medicine, art, and literature.

12. Freud vs. Jung: A Prodigy turns against his Mentor
Psychodynamic approach would arise out of a division with Freud (Neo-Freudians)
Adler, Jung, Horney
Instead of simply being a reservoir of repressed thoughts and motivations, as Freud believed, Jung argued that the unconscious could also be a source of creativity.
Agreed with importance of unconscious mind, but de-emphasized childhood experiences
Placed more emphasis on the social relationships in our lives 8

13. In the 1940’s and 1950’s:
Behaviorism arose out of a fusing of Structuralism & Functionalism
Watson ( )
Skinner ( )
Watson (1913) and later Skinner emphasized the study of overt behavior as the subject of psychology.
Basic tenet: Only observable behavior should be studied in scientific psychology
Behavior refers to an observable or overt response or activity of an organism
Give up consciousness and make Psychology a science of behavior
Not concerned with cognitive (mind) processes, only what they could see 9

14. John Watson and the Nature-Nurture Debate
Nurture, not nature
“give me a dozen healthy infants, well-formed, and my own special world to bring them up in and I’ll guarantee to take any one at random and train him to become any type of specialist I might select – doctor, lawyer, artist, merchant-chief, and yes, even beggar-man and thief…”
Behaviorist school of thought emphasized the environment (nurture)
Focus on stimulus-response relationships
Rise in animal research resulted 10

15. Are people free? B.F. Skinner (1904-1990)
Skinner championed a return to the strict focus on OBSERVABLE behavior only…he didn’t deny that mental events exist, just that they cannot be studied scientifically and are therefore outside the realm of the science of psychology.
Fundamental principle is that organisms tend to repeat responses that lead to positive outcomes and vice versa.
Skinner trained animals using this principle with much success; later, his followers showed that it also works with humans.
He stirred up controversy in the early 1970’s when he published Beyond Freedom and Dignity, asserting that all behavior is governed by external stimuli…people are controlled by their environments, not themselves…free will is an illusion. 11

16. Humanistic Psychology arose during 1960s
While Behaviorism and Psychoanalytic theory dominated mainstream psychology, many people had a hard time believing that people are not masters of their own fate.
The anti-Freud/Skinner crowd formed a loose alliance that eventually became a new school of thought…humanism…led by Abraham Maslow and Carl Rogers.
Humanism focused on the unique qualities of humans, especially free will and the potential for personal growth…a very optimistic view of human nature as opposed to the psychoanalysts or behaviorists.
Maslow and Rogers emphasized current environmental influences on our growth potential and our needs for love and acceptance.
Must be nurtured to achieve our full potential 12

17. of Needs Hierarchy Maslow’s
Maslow and Rogers emphasized current environmental influences on our growth potential and our needs for love and acceptance.
Must be nurtured to achieve our full potential 13

18. Putting the Psyche (mind) Back in Psychology: The Return of Cognition
Cognitive psychology is the most popular school of psychology today. 
Focus on our thinking patterns -- how we process information and the ‘schemas’ we form (Piaget). 
If you break up with your significant other and go into a great depression, the cognitive therapist would say that you have learned somewhere before that you should act depressed when you end a relationship  you have a schema for a breakup. 
They would focus on changing your schema to get you out of the funk. 
They might say things like "there are other fish in the sea" or "you will find somebody better". 
If they can change the way you view a situation (your schema) then they help you function more efficiently in society. 
If you think about it, we are all cognitive therapists.  We all give advice to our friends by trying to change their perspective of a dire situation. 14

19. Putting the Psyche (mind) Back in Psychology: The Return of Cognition
Cognitive School:
Concentrate on thinking, knowing, remembering
1950’s and 60’s– Piaget (children’s cognition) Chomsky (language), and Simon (Artificial intelligence, problem solving/cognition)
How and why do you know what you know
Jean Piaget- “schemas”, a way to view the world
encounter new and novel situations, we can “assimilate” (if its close)
or we can “accommodate” if we need to change our existing schemas
Some researchers argue that cognitive psychology is now the dominant perspective in psychology. 14

20. Biological Psychology: The Biological Basis of Behavior
Biological perspective - behavior explained in terms of physiological processes
James Olds (1956)
Electrical stimulation of the brain evokes emotional responses in animals
Roger Sperry (1981)
Left and right brain hemisphere specialization: each handle different types of mental tasks. 15

21. Psychology Today
We define psychology as the scientific study of behavior (what we do) and mental processes (inner thoughts and feelings).
A much more eclectic approach to studying the human mind and behavior
Contemporary schools of thought (7 schools):
Biopsychology (organic causes, brain, biochemistry)
Evolutionary Perspective (Darwin stuff)
Psychodynamic (unconscious mind)
Behavioral (what we can see)
Humanist (free will)
Cognitive (how we think about ourselves and the world)
Social-Cultural (behavior is dictated by your culture)

22. Psychology’s 1st Big Debate
Contemporary Psychology
Psychology’s 1st Big Debate
Nature versus Nurture
How much of our thinking & behavior is due to biological influences (nature) & what role does the environment play (nurture)
Often studies involve identical (monozygotic) twins who were separated at birth. Accounts for nature variables so any differences must be from nurture
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23. Psychology’s 2nd Big Debate Stability versus Change
How much of who we are and how we behave will change over our lifetime?
Baby temperament a predictor of personality?
Likes and dislikes, ways of thinking
Are you going to become your parents???
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24. Psychology’s 3rd Big Debate Continuity versus Stages
Is development a continuous process or does it occur in distinct stages?
We will study stage theorists of social (Erickson), cognitive (Piaget), and moral (Kohlberg) development
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25. Foreshadowing the Final Exam …
Know the differences between the schools and be able to apply this to every unit we study (particularly personality, development, abnormal psych., treatment)
Know the levels of analysis…it’s HOMEBASE

26. Studying Psychology: 7 Organizing Themes
Psychology as a field of study:
1. Empirical
Empiricism is the premise that knowledge should be acquired through observation… Psychologists conduct scientific research to TEST their ideas.
2. Theoretically diverse
A theory is a system of interrelated ideas used to explain a set of observations…in psychology, we have many competing theories…Freud, for example, would explain behavior in different terms than would Skinner…there is often more than one way to look at something.
3. Evolves in socio-historical context
Psychology and other sciences are influenced by trends, issues, and values in society…for example, the rapid growth of clinical psychology was greatly influenced by the war-related surge in the demand for clinical services. 18

27. Studying Psychology: 7 Organizing Themes
Behavior:
4. Determined by multiple causes
Behavior is governed by a complex network of interacting factors…why will you make an A in psychology? Intelligence, study skills, memory, motivation?
5. Shaped by cultural heritage
Culture refers to the widely shared customs, beliefs, values, norms, institutions, and other products of a community that are transmitted socially across generations…cultural factors shape behavior and influence our interpretations of behavior
6. Influenced jointly by heredity and environment
Heredity and environment interact to mold behavior in complex ways…it’s not nature or nurture, but the impact of nurture on nature and nature on nurture.
7. People’s experience of the world is highly subjective.
Motives and expectations influence people’s experiences…the scientific method is used to keep this from being a problem. 19

28. Slides I just didn’t want to lose

29. Wilhelm Wundt’s International Influence
Leipzig, the place to study psychology
Graduates of Wundt’s program set up new labs across Europe and North America
G. Stanley Hall ( ), Johns Hopkins University
Established the first psychology laboratory in the U.S. in 1883
Between 1883 and 1893, 24 new laboratories in North America
Many young scholars came to Leipzig to study under Wundt
Wundt’s students, trained in the scientific study of the mind, dispersed across Germany and America
The first research lab in the U.S. was established by G. Stanley Hall ( ) (who studied under Wundt briefly) at John’s Hopkins University
Between 1883 and 1893, 24 new psychological laboratories sprang up in the U.S. and Canada
While psychology was born in Germany, its period of largest growth began in the United States

30. Figure 1.1 Early Research Laboratories in North America

31. Table 1.1 Overview of Six Contemporary Theoretical Perspectives in Psychology

32. Figure 1.6 Membership in the American Psychological Association, 1900–2004

33. Figure 1.7 Employment of psychologists by setting

34. Figure 1.8 Major research areas in contemporary psychology

35. Figure 1.9 Principal professional specialties in contemporary psychology

36. Psychology’s Three Main Level of Analysis
Biological influences
genetic predispositions
genetic mutations
natural selection of adaptive physiology and behaviors
genes responding to environment
Psychological Influences
learned fears and other learnt expectations
emotional responses
cognitive processing and perceptual interpretations
Behavior or mental process
Social-cultural Influences
presence of others
cultural, societal, and family expectations
peer and other group influences
compelling models (such as media)