Chapter Twelve Gender Issues in Corrections

Chapter Twelve Gender Issues in Corrections
Penology, CJ 207 Chapter Twelve Gender Issues in Corrections

Objectives Explain how gender shapes the corrections world, from inmates to employees Show the range of correctional experiences affected by gender, from institutional corrections to alternatives to incarceration Explain the special needs of female offenders, from classification schemes for correctional facilities to inmate culture in facilities for women to special needs inmates

Objectives Develop an appreciation for the extent to which gender plays a role in how and to what extent women gain access to key services outside of prison and jail Give a sense of the special issues confronting the nation’s correctional system as it struggles to accommodate increasing numbers of female offenders

Introduction Introduction
Women are arrested less often than men and generally for less serious crimes In 2005 officers arrested nearly 2.5 million women 460,000 were for serious personal and property crimes 94,000 women were in jail 1.25 million women were under some form of correctional supervision in the U.S.

Introduction Personal Crimes
Women are arrested less often than men and generally for less serious crimes Women are arrested for: Forcible rape (1.5%) Murder and Negligent Homicide (11%) Robbery (11.1%) Review Table 12.1 on page 326

Defining the Issue: Benign Neglect?
Women make up: 24% of the persons arrested 7% of prison inmates 13% of jail inmates 12% of parolees 23% of probationers But the percentage of women being incarcerated is growing faster than the male population Females increased by 7% Males decreased by 7%

Women do not receive certain services, programs and other resources routinely offered to men Women have many of the same short and long term problems and daily concerns as men Women have special psychological, medical and physical needs that often go unrecognized of unmet Mother v. fathers Pregnancy and gynecological problems

Does this happen on purpose or by default? Incarcerated women get far less attention from legislator and policy makers Low number of incarcerated women Lack of facilities exclusively for women Small number of bed spaces Courts convict less women than men

Does this happen on purpose or by default? Incarcerated women get far less attention from legislator and policy makers Sexist perspective that incarcerated women get what they deserve Women adjust to prison better than men and don’t call attention to themselves by riot Little research done on incarcerated women

Explaining Female Offenders
Most studies have been conducted by males on male offenders Is there a difference in crime between the genders? The biological difference The power sharing perspective Lombroso believed female criminals were masculinized women Freud considered female criminals to be women who lacked proper maternal instincts

Otto found most of the crimes committed by women, shoplifting, theft, prostitution had: Low detection rates When detected, low reporting rates When detected and reported, women were unlikely to suffer the full brunt of the criminal justice system (Chivalry Hypothesis)

Alder and Simon gave us the “Liberation Hypothesis” Women’s liberation had opened up criminal activities to a new generation of women Increasing employment opportunities opened up new opportunities for crime This would end the traditional male female distinctions in crime

The “Radical Feminist” theory argued that male power and privilege both define all social relations and are the primary cause of all social inequities Women’s crimes were an escape from this male domination Running away, incorrigibility, prostitution

The “Social Feminists” theory cites the family structure creates differential power dynamics between husbands and wives (son and daughters) Patriarchal families produce daughters whose futures are limited to domestic labor and consumption and sons youthful misbehavior is tolerated and expected

The “Social Feminists” theory cites the family structure creates differential power dynamics between husbands and wives (son and daughters) Egalitarian families have husbands and wives who share power and their positions in society are equal and boys and girls have equal access to normalcy and criminality

This “Power Control” theory states the presence of power and the absence of control in egalitarian families create conditions conductive to common forms of delinquency for both boys and girls

Marxist Feminism” reflects a social ideology that is willing to subjugate women First to capital Women’s “jobs” are essential to the success of capitalism but are given low status and low pay Second to men men make the rules that women have to obey in society

Institutional Corrections for Female Offenders
Auburn Prison in New York first admitted women in 1825 (4 years after it opened) Housed above the kitchen Subject to abuse, neglect and indifference Eastern State Penitentiary, Pennsylvania admitted women from the start, 1829 Isolated, repentance and physical and psychological distress

After several scandals at Auburn Inmate pregnancy New York opened a separate women’s facility Mount Pleasant Female Prison in 1835 First separate women’s facility in the U.S. Open for 33 years Overcrowded and shut down

First U.S. prison for women run by women was opened in Indianapolis, Indiana Massachusetts opened a similar facility in 1877 New York opened a similar facility in 1887 Other states like Maryland housed both men and women in the same facility

The first women only prisons were cottage like in appearance Women were taught domestic appropriate skills Women were thought of as wayward children Women were seen as contemptible and beyond redemption These women were seen as betrayers of their gender The women who violated the law transgressed not only legal norms, but the boundaries of femininity itself

By 1940, 23 states had separate women’s prison facilities By 1975, the number had increased to 34 The other states contracted with states that had facilities to house their female inmates In 1927, the first federal women’s prison was in rural Alderson, West Virginia Cottage style Programs emphasized marketable and gender specific skills

Women in Jails The population of women in jail doubled between 1983 and 2005 1983 the figure was 6% or 15,000 of 747,529 2005 the number was 13% or 94,000 of 747,529 Most jails (90%) hold both males and females Must be out of sight and sound of each other In 2002, only 13 jails in the U.S. held only women (2/3rds of them were in the south)

Jail Inmates Most women inmates were: Race Black 44%, White 36%, Hispanic 15% Median age was 31 Most had been married at some time, but only 15% were married at the time of incarceration 80% were mothers, with 2 children 5 to 10% were pregnant at admission 55% had finished high school (same as men)

Gender Based Differences in Jail Populations More women inmates were first time offenders than men 50% had no prior sentence Most serious charges were: Property 32% Drug offenses 29% Public order offenses 21% Violent offenses 17%

Gender Based Differences in Jail Populations Drugs play a proportionately larger role in the illegal activities of women then they do for men Need more treatment programs then men Half of all female jail inmates indicated they were abused physically or sexually before admission 55% had been abused The above factors, combined with the general lack of treatment programs for women in jail make the incarceration of incarceration even more threatening and dangerous

Women in Prison The 2000 Census of Correctional Institutions 98 secure facilities were for women only 93 secure facilities were for both men and women There were over 1,000 state and federal facilities for men only

Women in Prison The number of women of women incarcerated per 100/000 is rising faster then men In 1995, 6% of all prisoners were female In 2005, 7% of all prisoners were female Between 1995 and 2005 The number of male inmates grew by 3% The number of female inmates grew by 5%

Federal Female Inmate 36 years old Black or Hispanic Has H.S. diploma or G.E.D Never been married State Female Inmate 33 years old More likely to be Black Less educated 40% do not have a H.S. diploma or G.E.D. Never been married

Federal Female Inmate 59% had at least one child under age 18 80% had lived with their children before entering prison State Female Inmate 65% had a least one child under age 18 60% had lived with their children before entering prison

Female Inmate 50% were employed prior to being incarcerated 30% were on welfare at the time of their arrest 72% were in federal prisons for drug crimes (29% in State Prisons) Male Inmate 30% were employed prior to being incarcerated 7.5% were on welfare at the time of their arrest 62% were in federal prisons for drug crimes (19% in State Prisons)

Female Inmate The sentence for 40% of women was less than 5 years 25% of women had sentences of 15 years or more including life Drug and property crimes Male Inmate The sentence for 25% of men was less than 5 years 33% of the men had sentences of 15 years or more including life Violent offenses

Female Inmate Women serve less of their time Women served 18 months Male Inmate Men serve more of their time Men served 26 months

Operating Women’s Correctional Facilities
Classification Schemes Male convicts reside mainly in medium or maximum security prisons 80% of female inmates are incarcerated in minimum to medium security facilities Although if may seem that females have it easier, females institutions have more rules Because there are fewer facilities the rules are stricter (minimum facilities are more like medium facilities)

Classification Schemes Many states use classification systems which are the same for men and women The system looks as factors such as: Threat assessment Past criminal and antisocial behavior Mitigating factors Family and community ties Gang membership

Classification Schemes As a result many states classify females lower than males This means less secure institutions This means more emphasis on habilitation Teaching life skills

Classification Schemes Do females have different needs than males? Yes Trauma and abuse Self-esteem and assertiveness Vocational and job skills Medical care Mental health Parenting and childcare Relationships

Classification Schemes Recommendations for a Change Classification systems must be system specific and even institution specific Importing a solution may not meet the needs of the inmates or institution Classification systems must be gender specific Women and men do not commit the same types of crimes Women are less violent, and less of a risk

Classification Schemes Recommendations for a Change Classification systems should consider a greater emphasis on habilitation Classification systems should be gender neutral, racially neutral Read “Risk Classification and Predicting Prison Violence: A Comparison of Male and Female Prison Inmates, Page 339

Inmate Culture in Women’s Prisons and Jails Remember we spoke of: Prisonization Deprivations of incarceration Both men and women suffer from the above Both men and women have inmate codes and role adaptation The exercise of power The delivery of goods and services Sexual relationships

Inmate Culture in Women’s Prisons and Jails But women have other concerns: Loss of children Women’s prisons are less violent The shame of incarceration (not criminalized)

Inmate Culture in Women’s Prisons and Jails But women have other concerns: Need for emotional support (not criminalized) “Squares” women who were situational offenders and wanted to change their lives “In the Life” women who were leading the same antisocial lives in prison that they had led on the street (Importation Theory) “Cools” women who manipulate others to make their own time pass more quickly

Inmate Culture in Women’s Prisons and Jails These cultures develop for specific concerns: In male prisons the subculture exists: To protect inmates from one another To neutralize the rejection associated with incarceration Provides a buffer between inmates and staff

Inmate Culture in Women’s Prisons and Jails These cultures develop for specific concerns: In female prisons the subculture exists for all of the above and: To provide emotional support They create “play families” or “pseudo families” They assume roles of spouse, parent, child, sibling or grandparents Include adoption, weddings and divorces

Women and Alternatives to Incarceration
Female Probationers and Parolees The probation sector has grown like no other part of the corrections system From 1990 to 2005 the number of women on probation increased: In 1990 there were 481,000 women on probation In 2005 there were 956,200 women on probation

Female Probationers and Parolees The same can be said for parole In 1992 there were 42,500 women on parole In 2005 there were 93,000 women on parole

Gender and Community Corrections McCarthy and McCarthy suggest for community corrections to be successful programs should focus on: The development of economic independence Job readiness training Vocational training Job development and placement Follow up services

Gender and Community Corrections McCarthy and McCarthy suggest for community corrections to be successful programs should focus on: Incorporate a parenting element Program participants who are mothers have special problems Furloughs and other temporary release programs can help improve their parenting skills and renew ties to their children

Gender and Community Corrections McCarthy and McCarthy suggest for community corrections to be successful programs should focus on: Survival training to live independently Problem solving skills How to open, use and balance a checking account Solving her own problems may encourage her to take greater responsibility for her life

Women and Reentry Women have higher risks of failure if they have any of the following: A psychiatric history (formally diagnosed) Contemplated suicide Attempted suicide Difficulty controlling her temper or her behavior is hostile or violent Knowing this program should address these issues

Women’s Correctional Issues
Gender issues in prisons tend to cluster around two topics: Policy concerns Women have a greater range of health and beauty items The allowed list of personal items is different for men and women Policies that are the same for both Diet, transportation, visits by children, pat down searches

Gender issues in prisons tend to cluster around two topics: Gender specific programs Parenting issues Unique health and medical problems

Parenting and Incarcerated Mothers Inmate Parents: Important Gender Differences 7 in 10 female inmates have children younger than 18 Women in jail had 105,300 minor children (2 per each female inmate) Men in jail have 225,830 minor children

Parenting and Incarcerated Mothers Inmate Parents: Important Gender Differences There are differences between mothers and fathers who are jail inmates Forced separation from children seems harder on women 66% of incarcerated women lived with their children prior to incarceration This number is 40% for men When mother go to jail the children are adopted or placed in foster homes

Women in the Correctional Workplace
Female Employees 33% of jail employees are women Of those 28% come into direct contact with the prisoners Most supervise female inmates or juveniles Strip searching females Observing them while they are showering Issuing them clothing According to the American Jail Association In 1991, 150 female jail administrators In 1999, 480 female jail administrators

Burnout and Job Satisfaction Burnout occurs when a person depletes their physical or mental resources Three stages of “Burnout” The employee becomes frustrated with the job and neglects the clients The employee feels less personal achievement and accomplishment in the job The employee is emotionally exhausted and is less productive

Burnout and Job Satisfaction Does gender play a part in job stress? Studies found that female Cos do experience more occupational stress then men Other research finds no difference Females were more likely to respond impersonally to inmates Females experienced lower levels of burnout

Burnout and Job Satisfaction Satisfied workers are better workers They have higher job performance ratings They have higher job retention rates They have lower rates of absenteeism Research failed to show adifference in job satisfaction in male and female correction officers

Chapter Twelve Gender Issues in Corrections

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