1. Origins of psychology Learning approaches Cognitive approaches

2. AQA specification
The Approaches unit is assessed in Paper 2 alongside Research Methods and Biopsychology
Origins of Psychology: Wundt, introspection and the emergence of Psychology as a science.
The basic assumptions of the following approaches:
Learning approaches: the behaviourist approach, including classical conditioning and Pavlov’s research, operant conditioning, types of reinforcement and Skinner’s research; social learning theory including imitation, identification, modelling, vicarious reinforcement, the role of mediational processes and Bandura’s research.
The cognitive approach: the study of internal mental processes, the role of schema, the use of theoretical and computer models to explain and make inferences about mental processes. The emergence of cognitive neuroscience.

3. Wundt Introspection Emergence of psychology as a science
Origins of Psychology
Wundt
Introspection
Emergence of psychology as a science

4. Wundt (1832-1920) Introduced Psychology as a distinct Science.
Opened the first Psychology laboratory in Leipzig, Germany (1879).
Interested in conscious experience and he trained himself and others to describe their experiences using introspection (literally looking inside).
observe our inner world.
The person gains knowledge about his or her own mental and emotional states
Wundt believed mental processes such as memory and perception could be observed
An example of this involved participants being shown an object and explain how they were perceiving it describing in detail the inner processes they were experiencing when viewing the object

5. Wundt: Scientific
Wundt carried out his studies under controlled conditions.
He trained assistants in the use of introspection so that they reported their experiences in a structured way.
He used the same stimuli, surroundings and instructions for each person.
Significance: marked the separation of modern scientific psychology from its broader philosophical roots

6. Wundt: Evaluation
Introspection is useful- Introspection has not been entirely abandoned.
Research was seen as a forerunner to the later scientific approaches.
Lack of Reliability - Wundts method relies on non-observable responses. Introspections experimental results are not easily replicated and therefore there is a distinct lack of reliability in these methods.
Introspection is not accurate- Nisbett and Wilson (1977) argue that we actually have very little knowledge of the processes underlying our behaviour which therefore conflicts with the values of introspection.
Introspection is useful- Introspection has not been entirely abandoned. Recent research has used methods of introspection as a way of making “happiness” a measurable phenomenon. This has been used in a recent study where participants wrote down their thoughts and feelings and this revealed that teenagers were unhappy rather than happy however happiness increased the more they were focused on a challenging task
Lack of Reliability - Wundts method relies on non-observable responses. Although participants report on their processes, the processes themselves are unobservable constructions (e.g memory)
Introspection is not accurate- Nisbett and Wilson (1977) argue that we actually have very little knowledge of the processes underlying our behaviour which therefore conflicts with the values of introspection. For example Nisbett and Wilson found that participants had very little awareness of factors that had influenced their choice of a consumer item. This therefore questions the accuracy on introspection as it is based on implicit attitudes which are therefore potentially outside conscious awareness and therefore inaccessible through the

7. Emergence of psychology as a science
1900: Behaviourists: rejected Introspection
1930’s: Behaviourist scientific approach dominated psychology (e.g. Skinner)
1950’s: Cognitive approach: used scientific procedures to make inferences about mental processes
1990’s: Biological approach: brain scanning techniques
Evaluation: use scientific method same as the more traditional sciences
However not all the approaches use this scientific method of enquiry (does not attempt to formulate general laws of behaviour. Documents unique experience. Utilises case study method: subjective/bias: distinct differences between natural sciences and psychology.
Evaluation of The Scientific Approach
Strengths
Determinism- Scientific methods rely on a belief of determinism and are therefore able to establish the causes of behaviour through the use of empirical methods
Scientific knowledge is always corrected- Scientific theory that no longer fits the facts can be refined or abandoned meaning knowledge is self-corrective. This means science can be progressive because Psychologists are always repeating each other’s experiments.
Limitations
Objectivity reduces reality- By concentrating on objectivity and controls in observations, psychologists create contrived, artificial situations that tell us little about everyday life. This decreases the ecological validity of research and therefore limits support for theory.
It is not always appropriate- Much of the subject of Psychology is unobservable (memory, perception, personality, emotion) therefore Psychology is always inferential. If human behaviour is subject to laws and regularities then predictions become impossible and these methods inappropriate.

9. Learning approaches
The behaviourist approach, including classical conditioning and Pavlov’s research, operant conditioning, types of reinforcement and Skinner’s research

10. Assumptions
We are born as a blank slate – a ‘tabula rasa’ – everything we become is shaped by the process of learning from our environment.
Extreme ‘nurture’ end of nature-nurture debate.
Argues that in order for psychology to be scientific it should focus on observable behaviour which can be objectively measured, rather than on things like cognitive processes which can only be inferred – rejected the idea of introspection!
Lab experiments are the best way to achieve this!
Behaviourists also assume that humans are like any other organism in how they develop therefore animals can be studied to draw conclusions about humans.

11. Behaviourism has two main forms of learning
Classical conditioning
Operant conditioning & reinforcement

12. Classical Conditioning - Pavlov
Learning through association…

13. How might this be used to learn/condition a fear?
How does it work?
Before conditioning
Bell: Neutral stimulus (NS)
Food: unconditioned stimulus (UCS)
Salivation: unconditioned Response (UCR)
During conditioning
Bell: Neutral stimulus (NS)
Pairing +
Food: unconditioned stimulus (UCS)
Salivation: unconditioned Response (UCR)
After conditioning
Bell: Conditioned stimulus (CS)
Salivation: Conditioned response (CR)
How might this be used to learn/condition a fear?

14. Operant Conditioning – Skinner
Learning through consequences
Learning is an active process whereby humans and animals operate in their environment

15. Consequences for behaviour
Anything which has the effect of increasing the likelihood of the behaviour being repeated by using consequences that are pleasant when they happen i.e. food for the rat/pigeon. Giving a child sweets when they clean their room.
Positive reinforcement :
Anything which has the effect of increasing the likelihood of the behaviour being repeated by using consequences that are pleasant when they stop. Aspirin to get rid of a headache. In simple terms, it is behaviour that makes something unpleasant go away.
Negative reinforcement :
Handout, they can match the words to the defintions – use textbook to help.
Anything which has the effect of decreasing the likelihood of the behaviour being repeated by using consequences that are unpleasant when happen
Punishment :

16. Evaluation: behaviourist
Hard Determinism/environmental determinism: The behaviourist approach sees all behaviour as determined by past experiences that have been conditioned. (ignores free-will)
Many critics of the behaviourist approach have questioned the ethics of conducting such investigations with animals.
Mechanistic view of individuals as machine like respondents to the environment.
The principles of conditioning have been applied to a broad range of real-world behaviours and problems. (token economy systems)
The behaviourist approach has scientific credibility.

17. Learning approaches
Social learning theory including imitation, identification, modelling, vicarious reinforcement, the role of mediational processes and Bandura’s research.

18. SOCIAL LEARNING THEORY Mind-Behaviour-Environment
The cognitive processes involved in learning.
COGNITIVE
FOCUS ON THE INTERNAL MENTAL PROCESS BETWEEN STIMULUS AND RESPONSE
BEHAVIOURISM
FOCUS ON HUMAN BEHAVIOUR IN RESPONSE TO REWARD/PUNISHMENT
Learning occurs from OBSERVING others.
The mind, behaviour and the environment ALL play a role in learning behaviour
This deals with the major criticism of Behaviourist approach, which ignores mental processes, by taking account of cognitive processes. 18

19. Main assumptions
Behaviour is learned from the environment through the process of observational learning which involves modelling, imitation, identification and vicarious reinforcement.
The consequences of others behaviour is observed and this informs predictions and guides future behaviours (vicarious reinforcement)
Mediational processes occur between stimuli (model behaves) and response cognitive processes include attention, retention (memory) and decision making.

20. What is the Social Learning Theory?
Developed by Bandura
Learning occurs through:
Modeling
Observational learning
Imitation
SLT take into account cognitive thought processes. These mental factors mediate in the learning process to determine if a response is acquired
Learning can occur simply through observing others – also known as MODELS – in our environment
Behaviour can be explained not just by our own direct experience, but through our observations of the experiences of other people. Social learning is learning through observation, imitation and modelling of another person.
We learn through MODELLING - Modelling involves learning through the observation of other people (models), which may lead to imitation (repetition) of the behaviour.
Unlike classical and operant conditioning, SLT takes into account the thoughts and mental process of an individual. Therefore, while it is a behaviourist theory it could be seen to have cognitive aspects.
Have you ever observed a behaviour that you have then copied? What makes you want to copy some people rather than others?

21. Bandura (1977) 4 mediational processes to social learning
Attention – learning can only take place if a model is attended to. More attention is paid to models we identify with or who have status. (cognitive)
Retention – behaviour we have observed is stored in memory. (cognitive)
Motor reproduction – some of the behaviour that has been learnt will be imitated. (behavioural)
Motivational processes – the expectation that behaviour will be rewarded encourages that behaviour to be reproduced. No consequences can also lead to imitation of behaviour. Punishment reduces the likelihood of imitation. The consequences can be direct or vicarious (cognitive).
Bandura identifies four conditions that are necessary for an individual to successfully model the behaviour of someone else:
Attention: the observer pays attention to the role model.
The observer identifies with the role model and sees the behaviour the role model is doing (observation) 
Rentention of the observed behaviour. The capacity to remember the behaviour
The observer retains the information they saw, and then imitation occurs.
the ability to replicate the behaviour that the model has just demonstrated. This means that the observer has to be able to replicate the action, which could be a problem with a learner who is not ready developmentally to replicate the action. For example, little children have difficulty doing complex physical motion
Reproduction of the target behaviour: (if the behaviour is beyond our capability we will not be able to reproduce it)
 This is where the observer copies the behaviour they have seen – this may depend on an individual’s abilities in doing the behaviour.
Motivation to imitate the observed behaviour (a reward we anticipate we will receive if we reproduce the behaviour.)
(Imitation may also be affected by motivation – if a reward has been witnessed after the modeling it is more likely the behaviour will be repeated)
learners must want to demonstrate what they have learned. Remember that since these four conditions vary among individuals, different people will reproduce the same behaviour differently
Vicarious reinforcement is when individuals learn by watching the consequences of others e.g. a child is misbehaving and sees other children who are behaving getting sweets, they will then copy this behaviour so they too can get the reward.

22. We are more likely to imitate behaviour if the model we are observing is:
Same age
Same gender
High social status
Respected/admired
However, Bandura stated that while these four processes explained how behaviour was imitated, there are other factors which can increase the likelihood of behaviour being imitated.
The more similar the role model is to the observer, the more likely that the behaviour will be imitated

23. Application of Social Learning Theory
Jane dyes her hair red because her favourite celebrity has done so.
First Jane paid attention to what the celebrity had done
Jane then retained this information
Jane was capable of reproducing the behaviour of dying her hair
Jane was motivated to dye her hair red and did so.
Can you think of other examples

24. Vicarious reinforcement
Bandura stated that we are influenced not just by the behaviour, but by the consequences for the person we are observing.
We observe and learn about behaviour by watching others being reinforced or punished (vicarious reinforcement)
learning NOT a result of direct reinforcement, rather an individuals observation of another person’s experiences
Bandura argued that children observe and learn about the consequences of aggressive behaviour by watching others be reinforced or punished (vicarious learning). Children witness many examples of aggressive behaviour at home or at school as well as on television and in films. By observing the consequences of aggressive behaviour for those who use it, children gradually learn something about what is considered appropriate and effective conduct. Thus they learn the behaviour through observation, and whether the behaviour is worth repeating. Bandura claimed that in order for social learning to take place, children must form mental representations of events in their social environments. They must also be able to anticipate expected rewards and punishments. Children will display a behaviour provided the anticipated rewards outweigh the anticipated punishments.
Once a child has observed and imitated a behaviour, this behaviour can then be maintained through direct reinforcement (operant conditioning).

25. SLT: application to media violence
Children observe and learn from role models
Live models (family, friends)
Symbolic models (through media: TV, films, games)
They learn which behaviours are worth repeating
They have a mental representation of events they observe, and can anticipate reward and punishment.
SYMBOLLIC MODELLING is considered to have a greater effect on cultures where media is widely available.

26. Core study Bandura, Ross ans Ross (1961)
Aim: To investigate whether exposure to a real-life aggressive model increases aggression in children.

27. Method: Tested 72 children enrolled at stanford university nursery
36 girls/36 boys: between ages of 3-5
Children were matched for physical and verbal aggression from ratings made by the experimenter and nursery school teacher.

28. Method: Stage one of the experiment
children were brought individually to the experimental room by the experimenter.
The room was set out for play
The model was invited to come in.
The child was placed in a corner of the room and shown how to design a picture
The model was taken to the opposite corner (containing a table, chair, tinker toy, mallet and a 5 foot inflatable bobo doll.
The children could only watch the model.
Stage one of the experiment
children were brought individually to the experimental room by the experimenter. The room was set out for play and the activities were chosen because they had been noted to have high interest for nursery school children, and included a Bobo doll.

29. Stage two of the experiment
In the non-aggressive condition, the model ignored Bobo and assembled the tinker-toys in a quiet, gentle manner.
In the aggressive condition the model began by assembling the tinker-toys, but after one minute turned to Bobo and was aggressive to the doll in a very stylised and distinctive way.
After ten minutes the experimenter entered and took the child to a new room.
Stage two of the experiment
There, the child was given toys to play with, which were eventually taken away.
In stage two the child was subjected to ‘mild aggression arousal’. The child was taken to a room with relatively attractive toys. As soon as the child started to play with the toys the experimenter told the child that these were the experimenter’s very best toys and she had decided to reserve them for the other children.

30. Stage three of the experiment
Children were then taken to another experimental room and allowed to play freely for 20 minutes with aggressive and non aggressive toys and a 3 foot bobo doll.
Behaviour was rated by observing through a one way mirror.

31. Results
Children exposed to an aggressive role model displayed significantly more direct imitation than children exposed to the non-aggressive model.
On average 12.7 aggressive acts were imitated from the aggressive model
Girls were more likely to engage in verbal aggression and boys more likely to engage in physical aggression
Watching an aggressive role model had a greater effect on boys than on girls
Boys were more likely to imitate aggressive acts from the same sex role model than girls
Boys copied 25.8 aggressive acts when the model was male
On average girls copied 5.5 aggressive acts if the model was female and 7.2 aggressive acts if the model was male.
When the male aggressive model was observed an average of
16.5 aggressive acts were copied compared to 8.95 aggressive acts copied from the female aggressive role model

32. Conclusion
The findings support Bandura’s Social Learning Theory. That is, children learn social behaviour such as aggression through the process of observation learning – through watching the behaviour of another person.
Children exposed to an aggressive model are likely to display aggression and to imitate aggressive acts.

33. Evaluation of bobo doll study
Strengths: GRAVE
+ Takes into account COGNITIVE PROCESSES
+ Has many applications (gender roles)
+ Great deal of strong experimental evidence - Bandura’s bobo doll  study found children imitate same sex role models +
+ Practical applications e.g. introducing positive role models; having  age restrictions on video games and films so children are not exposed to  undesirable behaviour
Weaknesses
Does not explain individual differences – e.g. reinforcement to one child might not be the same for another
Does not account for ALL behaviour e.g. becomes a criminal, despite not associating with criminals
It has taken place in a lab and NOT a real life setting – how do we know children would react like this in the real world – this means it lack ECOLOGICAL VALIDITY
Ethical Issues
Is it actual aggression or just harmless play?
- Lack of validity – behaviour may have been learnt but not exhibited  immediately. Lab studies only show what happens within a limit time, so it  may appear behaviour has/has not been learnt yet it may be displayed later. 
- Studies often carried out on animals, difficult to generalise to  humans 

34. Evaluation of bobo doll study
Weaknesses: GRAVE
- Does not explain individual differences – e.g. reinforcement to one child might not be the same for another
Does not account for ALL behaviour e.g. becomes a criminal, despite not associating with criminals
It has taken place in a lab and NOT a real life setting – how do we know children would react like this in the real world – this means it lack ECOLOGICAL VALIDITY
Generalisability
Ethical Issues
Is it actual aggression or just harmless play?
Lack of validity – behaviour may have been learnt but not exhibited  immediately. Lab studies only show what happens within a limit time, so it  may appear behaviour has/has not been learnt yet it may be displayed later. 
Generalisability.
They used a large sample (of 72) so the results could be
generalised to others/eq;
As it was only done on children aged three to five the results may
not be true for older children/teenagers/adults/eq;
It was done on children in the university nursery so does not
include children from other backgrounds/eq;
The sample contained both boys and girls so results apply to both
genders/eq;
Validity.
The nursery was a natural setting for the children so the study
had ecological validity/eq;
It was carried out in a lab setting so this makes it artificial and
lacking in ecological validity. (generic point) /eq;
The children had never seen a Bobo doll before so may have hit it
because that is what they thought they should do with it/eq;
The children had never seen a Bobo doll before so may have hit it because that is what they thought they should do with it so the experimenters weren’t measuring the effect of violent role models
on children’s aggression in normal circumstances/eq; (2 marks)
They deliberately made the children frustrated which may not happen after watching normal t.v. so the results may not be true
of everyday life/eq;

35. Social learning- Evaluation
Social learning theory provides a more comprehensive explanation of human learning than behaviourism because…………………
It emphasises the importance of cognitive factors in learning. Neither classical or operant conditioning can offer a comprehensive account on human learning because cognitive factors such as the mediational processes are ignores. By taking into account these processes which cannot be demonstrated with animal research, SLT provides a more complete explanation of human learning than the behaviourist approach

36. Social learning- Evaluation
2. Much of the research is based on laboratory studies which may involve demand characteristics. This is problematic because……
The approach relies to heavily on evidence from controlled lab studies. This is evident in Bandura’ (1961) Bobo doll study. The main purpose of the bobo doll is to hit it. The children in the study may have been behaving as they thought was expected. Thus the research may tell us little about how children actually learn aggression in everyday life.

37. Social learning- Evaluation
3. The Social learning theory underestimates the influence of Biological factors. This is a limitation because…
The SLT sees behaviour as environmentally determined whereas some behaviours may be innate. For example, a consistent finding in the bobo doll experiment was that boys showed more aggression than girls regardless of the specifics of experimental condition. This may be explained by differences in the levels of testosterone, which is present in larger doses in males compared to females and has been liked to aggression. Both the SLT and Bandura may have underestimated the important the impact of biological, heredity or maturational factors on behaviours. Evidence from these areas of research does show they do have an impact.

38. Social learning- Evaluation
4. SLT can explain gender differences across cultures which is useful because………….
It helps us to understand a range of behaviours and how cultural norms are transmitted. It helps us to understands how children learn from parents and each other and also how the media can influence our behaviour.
This is in contrast with the biological approach who explain universal behaviours because human biological processes do not change with behaviour.

39. Social learning- Evaluation
5. The SLT is less Deterministic than behaviourism because is suggests that there is an element of free will in the way we behave. This is an advantage because it offers a more realistic and flexible position than is suggested by the behaviourist approach as it recognises the role we play in shaping our environment.

40. Difficulty demonstrating cause and effect – although Bandura research controlled variables and demonstrated behaviour was imitated it is difficult to show cause and effect in real life Benefits of the experimental approach to investigate learning and issues with experimental evidence that might affect the validity of the results and therefore the conclusions drawn. Provides explanations that relate to behaviours such as aggression and intellectual development. mediating cognitive factors have to be inferred so cannot measure extent of their influence SLT does not explain cognitive processes, leaving this to cognitive psychologists can explain learning of outward behaviours, SLT is not so able to explain the learning of abstract notions, eg fairness, justice etc which cannot be observed directly

41. Cognitive approach
The cognitive approach: the study of internal mental processes, the role of schema, the use of theoretical and computer models to explain and make inferences about mental processes. The emergence of cognitive neuroscience.

42. Cognitive assumptions
A person’s behaviour is determined by the way they think about the world
The scientific study of mental processes
We can make inferences about what is going on inside someone’s head based on how they are behaving
Faulty thought processes lead to behavioural abnormalities
The use of computer models when describing and explaining mental processes (human mind processes information much the same as a computer)
Behaviour is influenced by the person’s schemas – a schema is a set of ideas about a particular concept
The emergence of cognitive neuroscience 

43. Each file in the cabinet is a schema
What is a Schema?
Schemas are like filing cabinets, as they organise and contain information.
Your mind
Each file in the cabinet is a schema
You have millions of these files (schemas) in your mind. For example…

44. Restaurant Schema
Question: What do you think will happen if you go to a posh restaurant? How might you use a schema?
Your schema will tell you…

45. Restaurant Schema
Question: Is your schema for this restaurant the same…

46. What is a Schema?
Schemas are ways we organize and store thoughts and information in our minds which are about ourselves and our world around us.
When we take in information we often link it with information we already know.
Question: WHY do we have schemas?
A cognitive framework or concept that helps organise and interpret information.
Schemas can be useful because they allow us to take shortcuts in interpreting the vast amount of information that is available in our environment.
However, these mental frameworks also cause us to exclude pertinent information to focus instead only on things that confirm our pre-existing beliefs and ideas. Schemas can contribute to stereotypes and make it difficult to retain new information that does not conform to our established ideas about the world

47. Why do we have Schemas? They help us organise information in our mind.
Allow us to take short cuts (process information quickly) when dealing with huge amounts of information.
However, schemas distort our memory and how we interpret things…

48. What do you see?
“Remembering is not a passive but rather an active process, where information is retrieved and changed to fit into existing schemas”
(Bartlett)

49. Theoretical and computer models
Scientific models aim to provide simplified, objective representations of how our minds might work.
Theoretical models are descriptive versions of how some aspect of human behaviour works, which may be represented visually.
To the right is an example of a theoretical model that attempts to explain how our memory works
Computer models
The Cognitive Approach also uses Computer models where the mind is compared to a computer suggesting there are similarities in the way information is processed.
These models use the concepts of
A central processing unit (Brain)
Coding (to turn information into useful concepts)
Stores (to hold information)

50. Theoretical and computer models: Why are humans not identical to computers?
Too simplistic
Ignores the biological complexity of the brain
Does not consider human emotion
Does not consider motivation
Research shows we are affected by human emotion
(e.g anxiety and memory)
Difficult to objectively measure

51. Machine reductionism
Reductionist To a complex phenomenon (like the human mind and behaviour) psychologist often need to “reduce” it to it’s smallest parts. Machine reductionism Theoretical and computer models use the analogy of machine systems, and the simple components of such machines, as a means to describe and explain behaviour. This is reductionist as it ignores the complexity of human behaviour and more specifically it ignores the influence of human emotion and motivation.

52. Cognitive approach: evaluation
Uses scientific and objective methods
Approach is based on machine reductionism
Based on research that lacks external validity (infer: too abstract and theoretical)
Application to everyday life
Less deterministic than other approaches

53. Approaches: 2 Next week: Biological approach Psychodynamic approach
Humanistic approach