1. Education
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Education

2. Before the Butler Act 1944
Until the 19th century children from the upper classes went to "Public schools" and many middle-class children went to grammar schools. Few working-class children received any formal education outside "Sunday schools" and "voluntary schools", most of which were "denominational schools", especially C of E.
The 1870 Forster Act provided for the building of new schools and also supported existing schools, provided they agreed to be inspected.
In the early 20th century a number of scholarships were provided to enable children from poorer families to attend grammar schools.
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Education

3. Butler Act 1944
The 1944 Education Act, prepared under the direction of the Conservative Minister of Education RAB Butler, introduced free education for all.
It identified three broad categories of children and planned for three different kinds of secondary school to cater for their needs. It was expected that these types of school (in the state sector) would provide broadly equal standards of education.
They were
Grammar schools, for the academically-minded
Secondary Modern schools, for most children
and Technical Schools for the more technically-minded.
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Education

4. Butler Act 1944
After the war most secondary schools were either Grammar schools or Secondary Modern schools.
Grammar schools were generally able to rely on better resources and to recruit better teaching staff and pupils.
An examination was set up to decide which kind of school each child would attend. This examination, based on a variety of tests, including IQ tests, was taken by children of 11 or above, and became known as the "11-plus".
It was supposed to be nothing more than a way of selecting children for the most appropriate kind of school, without any suggestion of success or failure. However the reality was that pupils could "pass" or "fail" the 11-plus, and that was the language people used.
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Education

5. Public schools
Private sector education was largely unaffected by the Butler Act. "Public schools" (as opposed to state schools) continued to attract the fee-paying sons (and a few daughters) of the well-to-do.
The most famous of the public schools, Harrow and Eton, continued to enjoy enormous prestige. Most high-flying politicians, top businessmen, senior civil servants and so on were educated at Eton or Harrow (and then went on to Oxford or Cambridge).
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Education

6. Comprehensive schools
Most children "failed" the 11-plus, although different areas could have very different proportions "passing" and "failing" as a result of uneven availability of grammar schools.
Labour felt that the system was socially divisive: grammar schools were overwhelmingly attended by middle class children, and secondary moderns for working class children. Moreover, there was a feeling that children with potential were being denied the opportunity of a good education, at a time when Labour was keen to promote the "technological revolution" which needed a well-educated work-force.
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Education

7. Comprehensive schools
In 1965 the Labour Education Minister "requested" Local Education Authorities (LEAs) to "merge" existing schools into "comprehensive schools". All children from a given area ("catchment area") would go to the same school. A number of comprehensives were created. However Conservative LEAs were mostly reluctant. They feared comprehensive schools, mixing children of different abilities, would lead to a fall in standards. The Conservatives were also keen to promote "choice" for parents. Between 1970 and 1974, under Edward Heath's Conservative government, LEAs were allowed to retain the Butler Act system.
When Labour returned to power in 1974 it passed legislation to "require" LEAs to "go comprehensive".
Margaret Thatcher's Conservative government repealed this legislation.
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Education

8. Comprehensive schools
Consequently there are still a number of grammar schools, alongside a majority of comprehensive schools.
None of this of course affects the independent fee-paying sector, which has grown over the last twenty years or so. Some 10% of pupils go to independent schools. The Thatcher government introduced a scheme of "assisted places" to enable good pupils to go to independent schools, even if their families did not have the resources to pay the fees.
Anxiety about standards led the government to introduce a National Curriculum and a system of national tests. Schools may also "opt out" of control by the LEAs if parents think the LEAs are failing to provide high quality education.
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Education

9. Standards and the National Curriculum
In 1992 the Conservatives set up an agency to maintain standards in education, OFSTED (the Office for Standards in Education).
OFSTED produces "league tables" indicating schools' performance. This is designed to facilitate parent choice.
The National Curriculum introduced by the 1988 Education Act designated three core subjects, English, maths and science, and seven foundation subjects, history, geography, technology, music, art, physical education and one modern language. History and geography are now only compulsory until age 14.
Pupils are tested at 7, 11, 14 and 16 (Standard Assessment Tests)
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Education

10. School-leaving Examinations
The General Certificate of Secondary Education was introduced in 1988 to provide a single system of examinations for school-leavers at approximately age 16. Pupils take a number of GCSEs, and are given a grade between A and G. F and G are fails.
After the sixth form (lower sixth and upper sixth, age and approx.) pupils usually take one or more GCE A levels. (GCE: General Certificate of education, A-level: Advanced level, as distinct from the old GCE "O-levels" exams (ordinary level) which have been replaced by GCSEs).
Most pupils who go to university will have done approx 8 GCSEs and three A-levels or more.
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Education

11. School-leaving Examinations
There are also a series of General National Vocational Qualifications (GNVQs) for vocational subjects.
This system of education and examinations for year-olds is currently being reformed (see dfes.gov.uk). The following pages from the DFES web site explain the new arrangements.
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Education

12. School-leaving Examinations
The future of A levels
Every year there is criticism that A levels are becoming easier because pass rates keep rising. The summer of 2006 was no exception with an overall A-E pass rate of 96.6 per cent.
Another area of concern, particularly voiced by people working in higher education, is that A levels do not develop enough independent learning and study skills.
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Education

13. School-leaving Examinations
Introducing an extended project at A level
In response to these criticisms the Government's exam watchdog, the Qualifications and Curriculum Authority (QCA), has announced:
* a new extended project to be introduced in a single piece of work, requiring a high degree of planning, preparation and independent study;
* there will be more open-ended questions, prompting longer written answers from the student.
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Education

14. School-leaving Examinations
14-19 reforms make learning more relevant
The extended project is being introduced as part of the reforms to make learning more relevant to teenagers, allowing them to make the best choices on leaving school.
The centrepiece of the reforms is a new employer-led specialised diploma. It combines practical skill and technical understanding. Pupils can study for the diploma up to A level equivalent.
Students taking A levels and the new diplomas will be able to do the extended project. It will be on a par with an AS qualification in terms of teaching and learning time [ ... ]
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Education

15. School-leaving Examinations
Reforming the system
The reforms came out of the working group, chaired by Sir Mike Tomlinson, which looked at the way qualifications are assessed. In October 2004 the Tomlinson report called for a unified diploma system for all year olds, which would gradually replace all other qualifications.
The Government decided to retain GCSEs and A-Levels and to reform just the vocational (known as applied) side of the qualifications system. In February 2005 the Government published the Education and Skills White Paper, which responded to the Tomlinson report, and committed to retaining and strengthening A levels in the long term.
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Education

16. School-leaving Examinations
Students take AS then A2 for their A levels
At present students who continue their studies after GCSE have to sit AS and A2 examinations before they can be awarded their A level qualifications.
AS is the Advanced Subsidiary level taken at the end of the first year of study. At the end of the second year students sit the A2 exams, which complete the A level.
There have been several changes to the A level structure since its introduction in The A level was traditionally taken as a two-year course that follows on from GCSE exams or equivalent. To broaden the subject scope, the Advanced Supplementary (then known as AS) level was introduced in 1989.
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Education

17. School-leaving Examinations
In 2000, the new Advanced Subsidiary (as AS levels became) and A2 system was put in place, with the number of subject areas expanded from three to four or five. In their first year of A levels (Year 12), students choose to study subjects (each consisting of three AS units) and sit AS level exams. At the end of their first year they have two options for each subject:
* take an AS level only and gain a recognised qualification;
* continue for a second year and go for the full A level.
Either way, AS levels allow students to mix a number of subjects and keep their options open longer.
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Education

18. School-leaving Examinations
A levels used to be placed into two categories:
* GCE AS/A levels;
* vocational VCE A levels, which involved the study of a sector of industry.
In 2005/6 the formal distinction between GCEs and VCEs was dropped. Both vocational and academic qualifications became known as GCEs. However a small number of subjects, for example art and design, business, ICT and science, were available as both GCEs and VCEs.
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Education

19. School-leaving Examinations
In order to distinguish between the different patterns of study and assessment in these qualifications, the term "applied" has been introduced into the current vocational qualification in these subjects. So for example, the old VCE in art and design is now known as the GCE A-level in (applied) art and design.
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Education

20. School-leaving Examinations
The International Baccalaureate
As well as A levels and the new diplomas, post-16 pupils can also choose to study the International Baccalaureate. The IB Diploma is a broad two-year programme of education for students aged that offers six subjects including:
* their own language
* a second language
* an arts subject
* a science subject
* compulsory elements (an extended project, theory of knowledge and community science).
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Education

21. School-leaving Examinations
The UK has 5,000 IB students at 94 institutions. By 2010 a further 100 institutions (mainly sixth-form colleges and FE colleges) will be offering the IB.
The maximum IB mark of 45 is equivalent to six and a half A levels at grade A, or a score of 768 points according to UCAS, the central organisation that processes applications for full-time undergraduate courses at UK universities and colleges.
Directgov Education and Learning's Qualifications Explained section includes information on A levels and vocational qualifications and how various qualifications compare, for students, parents and carers, and employers.
First posted on Sunday 25 March 2007; last modified on Sunday 25 March 2007.
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Education

22. Higher Education
Until the early 19th century Higher Education was provided by a small number of universities: Oxford and Cambridge (sometimes referred to collectively as "Oxbridge") and four ancient universities in Scotland (St. Andrews, etc) and one in Wales.
In the early 19th century, a few colleges were created in London.
A number of "civic" or "redbrick" universities were created from the mid-19th century onwards, especially in major provincial cities (Manchester, ...). The 1960s saw very substantial expansion, with a large number of new universities being created, as well as a number of Polytechnics, often based on former Technical colleges, to provide more vocational training alongside the more academic traditional universities.
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Education

23. Higher Education
In 1969 the Wilson government also created the "Open University", which some people referred to as the University of the Air (because it made extensive use of radio and television) to allow people who had not had an opportunity to go to university to do a degree in their spare time.
Despite all the expansion of the 1960s, only about 5% of the student age group attended a higher education institution in the 1970s. The figure is now approx 35%.
In 1993 Polytechnics were allowed to become universities. Most did. They are usually referred to today as "new universities" ...
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Education

24. Higher Education
The increased student numbers have not been accompanied by a comparable increase in funds.
Maintenance grants have been abolished, and "replaced" by a system of loans.
Fees have been introduced for all students. Until 2006, the maximum fee was £1,125, but universities are now able to charge £3000 a year and more. Students will not however have to pay fees "up front", i.e. during their course, but will begin to repay them when they begin to earn more than £15,000 a year. (see:
There has been considerable student protest, and anxiety that students from poorer backgrounds might be reluctant to build up substantial debts.
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Education

25. Higher Education
Scotland does not charge fees ... to students from Scotland. Students from England do however have to pay fees in Scottish universities. (see lecture on "devolution")
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Education

26. Education policy - private finance
On March Labour (Blair ...) won a divisive vote on education only with the help of the Conservatives ...
The policy allows more private money into schools ...
see for example the Guardian Education report:
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Education