1. Offender profiling

2. updates Homework on website Support sessions:
Tuesday, Wednesday and Friday

3. Memory and Social Influence

4. Question 1 A = Unlimited B = 18–30 seconds
C = Acoustic/phonetic/sound-based
D = Semantic

5. Question 2 The focus of this answer must be on explaining difference.
Base their explanation on the findings of one experiment such as
Murdock (1962) which showed a primacy effect (LTM) and a recency effect (STM),
A case study such as KF which showed impaired STM but unaffected LTM. Reference to evidence from brain scans would also be relevant,
Squire (1992) found the hippocampus is active in LTM tasks and areas in the pre-frontal cortex are active during STM tasks.
Alternatively the explanation may relate to a specific feature of STM / LTM
e.g. Peterson and Peterson supported the idea of limited duration in STM while Bahrick supported that of relatively permanent LTM.
Baddeley found that lists of similar sounding words confused STM term memory and lists of semantically similar words confused long term memory.

6. Question 3 B

7. Question 4 One mark each for: One mark for a distinction point.
An example of semantic memory – knowing that Paris is the capital of France or a hawk is a bird of prey.
An example of episodic memory – remembering a conversation we had yesterday or our 10th birthday party. Example must be personalised to get credit.
One mark for a distinction point.
semantic memories are general knowledge about the world, but episodic memories are memories of our personal experiences.
Or, we may not recall when and where we learned / encoded our semantic memories but we do recall this for our episodic memories.
Evidence suggests they are located in different areas of the brain.

8. Question 5
Reference to attentional capacity/capacity of the central executive – because driving is an ‘automated’ task for Bryan, it makes fewer attentional demands on his central executive so he is free to perform other tasks (such as talking or listening to music); this is not the case for Bob who requires all of his attentional capacity for driving.
•        Credit reference to Bob’s inability to dual-task and to divide resources effectively between components of working memory.
•        Credit the idea that Bryan is able to divide resources between his visuo-spatial scratch / sketch pad (driving) and articulatory control process / articulatory / phonological loop / primary acoustic store (talking and listening to music) and thus to dual-task.

9. Question 6a
The answer must clearly relate to one or more of the main techniques used in a cognitive interview (other than report everything):-
Context reinstatement Recall from a changed perspective Recall in reverse order
1 mark for identification of a relevant cognitive technique. 1 mark for very brief statement eg “tell me what you saw in reverse order”.
Second mark for appropriate elaboration eg “Tell me what you saw on the film in a different order to how it actually happened.” If instructions are not suitable to be read out maximum 1 mark for this part. For 3 marks technique and instructions must match.

10. Question 6b
2 marks - it was effective because there were more correct items recalled and the number of incorrect items stayed the same / didn’t increase.

11. Question 7
Simply identifying or naming one or more potentially relevant ways of dealing with the ethical issue – maximum 1 mark. For example, confidentiality, anonymity, debrief. Further marks for explaining how psychologists could deal with this ethical issue.
For example:
Right to withdraw (1 mark)
Participants should be reminded of their right to withdraw from the research (2 marks)
If participants are showing signs of distress, the psychologist should remind the participants of their right to withdraw (3 marks).

12. Question 8 AO3 = 4 (2+2) Strengths of Milgram’s Methodology:
•        Can easily be replicated, therefore reliability can be assessed.
•        It is easier to control the variables, so that it is only the independent variable that is being manipulated.
•        Can determine whether the IV does cause the DV to change, causal conclusions can be drawn.
Limitations of Milgram’s methodology:
•        As the situation is often artificial, there is a loss of external validity.
•        Demand characteristics may cause participants to behave in ways that are not normal.
•        Investigator effects can also cause participants to behave differently.
For example, a strength is that in a laboratory experiment it is easier to control all the variables (1 mark). This means that you can see whether the independent variable is the one affecting the dependent variable and not some other variable (elaboration for a further mark).

13. Question 9
AO2 = 4
Jan is showing internalisation, she has taken the others’ beliefs as her own and this behaviour continues even when she is away from the group.
Norah is showing compliance, because away from the group she reverted back to her original behaviour.
Jan believes the others were right (ISI) while Norah just wanted to be accepted by her housemates (NSI). Credit explanation in terms of private / public behaviour.

14. Question 10
(a)     AO2 = 4
(i)      Petra is showing external locus of control.
(ii)     Dan is showing an internal locus of control.
(iii)    George did not put his name forward as he was obeying his father, someone who he is likely to see as a legitimate authority figure. Candidates could indicate that it was obedience that caused George’s behaviour. They might also refer to the influence of an authority figure.
(b)     AO2 = 4
The student who is most likely to resist pressure to conform is Dan. He has an internal locus of control and research has suggested that those people who believe that they are in control of their environment are less likely to conform. These personality types are much more likely to behave independently. Dan’s attributional style allows him to resist the pressure to conform. Another reason could be gender. Males have been shown to be more independent than females.

15. Question 11
Unlike majority influence, which maintains the status quo, minority influence brings about social change. If a minority is consistent, flexible and non-dogmatic, they can challenge the beliefs held by the majority. Over time, through the snowball effect the minority becomes the majority and their beliefs become widely held. Sometimes through social crypto-amnesia, the original source of the influence is forgotten. Candidates may refer to research such as that by Moscovici, but the focus of the answer should be on explaining social change, rather than on describing his research itself.

16. Bottom up approach

17. The Bottom-Up Approach to Offender Profiling
Lesson objectives:
Describe the bottom up method
to critically investigate the bottom up approach within offender profiling
To apply to real life case study
To consider comparison points

18. starter
what are 3 limitations of the top down approach? link back to last lesson!!
Full PEE paragraph

19. Bottom Up Approach to Profiling
Data to Profiler
Profiling is based on scientific theory and research
David Canter – Main researcher in this field
Criminal consistency hypothesis
Two main types of Bottom-Up Profiling
Investigative Psychology (Interpersonal consistency)
Geographical Profiling (spatial consistency)

20. Investigative Psychology
Offender profile emerges based on the data
Does not begin with fixed typologies instead the profile is data driven and emerges as the investigator scrutinises the details of a particular offence.
Aim: generate a picture of the offenders characteristics, routines and background through analysis of the evidence

21. Investigative Psychology
Patterns that occur or co-exist across crime scenes are used to generate data about the offender. It is based on psychological theory of matching behavioural patterns to generate data on the offender.
Interpersonal coherence: the way in which an offender behaves at the scene, how they interact with the victim may indicate how they act in everyday life
Significance of time and place: may indicate where the offender is living if the crimes take place within the same forensic “centre of gravity.”
Criminal characteristics / career: e.g. number of times crime repeated, any characteristics over the different crimes that can show a pattern
Forensic awareness. This focusses on those who have been the focus of police attention before. Their behaviour may denote how mindful they are of covering their tracks.

22. Geographical profiling
Crime mapping

23. Geographical Profiling (spatial consistency)
Inferences about the offender based on location (crime mapping)
Location can also be used alongside psychological theory to create hypothesis about the offender and their mondus operandi

24. Geographical Profiling
Create as many reasons as you can of why this generates an accurate offender profile.
Rossmo (1997) stated than an offender’s operational base of possible future offences are revealed by the geographical location of their previous crimes.

25. Based on the idea of mental maps.
Mental maps are people’s internal representations of the external world and are unique to each individual.
Criminals draw on their mental maps when committing a crime so that an area in which an offence takes place has boundaries.
These are unconscious and are a consequence of the offender’s experience of their environment..

26. Marauder and commuter types of offender
Serial offenders restrict their ‘work’ to areas they are familiar with. Canter and Larkin (1993) proposed two models of offender behaviour The marauder: operates close to their home base The commuter: likely to have travelled a distance away from their usual residence when committing a crime.

27. Circle theory
Canter and Larkin suggest that the pattern of offending locations is likely to form a circle around the offenders usual residence, and those becomes more apparent the more offences there are. The offenders spatial decision- making can provide insight into the nature of the offender (employment, mode of transport etc…)

28. John Duffy: The Railway Rapist complete the worksheet

29. John Duffy, the “Railway Rapist”
24 sexual attacks in the 1980s and 3 murders in railway stations across North London.
David Canter analysed geographical information from similar crime scenes and details of similar attacks to draw up a surprisingly accurate profile of Duffy using bottom-up profiling techniques.

30. John Duffy Documentary Clip:

32. Canter profile Canter left True facts right Lives in Kilburn
Lived in Kilburn
Marriage problems
Separated
Physically small, unattractive
5ft 4in with acne
Martial artist
Member of a martial arts club
Need to dominate women
Violent – attacked wife
Fantasies of rape, bandage
Tied up his wife before sex
Knowledge of the railway
He worked for the railway as a carpenter
Experience with police or knowledge of procedures
He had a criminal record and combed the pubic hair of the victims to remove evidence of his own
Canter left
True facts right

33. The case of Adrian Babb
• Not violent because only necessary force used.
• Athletic build suggests solitary sports interest - for example, body-building or swimming.
• Cleanliness and organization suggests he was obsessive.
• No attempts to avoid forensic evidence suggested he was not aware of police procedures, thus not
convicted before for this type of crime. Possible previous conviction for minor sexual offences.
• Ease with older women suggests dealing with elderly people in non-offence context.
• Knowledge of tower blocks suggests he lives in one. Based on this report, a police detective searched

34. The case of Adrian Babb
Through the records of minor sexual offenders, and found a match between Babb's fingerprints and those at the scene of crime. It was the lack of forensic awareness that led to his arrest. Babb was a swimming pool attendant, hence the cleanliness and lack of body odour, and he looked after sessions for the elderly.

35. Bottom-up approach continued/Idiographic vs. nomothetic

36. Describe the bottom up approach (6 marks)
Task
Describe the bottom up approach (6 marks)

37. Evaluation of the Bottom-Up Approach castles
In pairs, discuss the issues with using this approach.

38. Evaluation Other factors are important
Location is important but there are other factors that need to be taken into account, such as their psychological characteristics
Concentrating on location may cause an investigator to miss important information if used in isolation

39. Evaluation Evidence supports geographical profiling
Lundrigan and Canter (2001) collated information from 120 murder cases involving serial killers in the USA. Analysis revealed spatial consistency in the behaviour of the offenders. The effect was more noticeable for offenders who travelled short distances (marauders).
This supports Canter’s claim that spatial information is a key factor in determining the base of an offender.

40. Evaluation Works for different crimes
Geographical profiling helps to locate offenders of many different types of crime e.g. it can be used to locate the likely home of burglars given that they concentrate their crimes in a familiar place, often close to home.
Therefore it can be widely applied to many different types of crime.

41. Evaluation Based on research and statistical likelihood
It is based heavily on research and statistical likelihood. This means that it is seen to be more scientific than top-down approaches. This use of statistics and theory has removed intuition of the profiler from the process, which is argued to make it more reliable.

42. Evaluation Mixed results for profiling
Despite the successes, there have been some significant failures (e.g. Rachel Nickell). Copson (1995) surveyed 48 police forces and found that the advice provided by the profiler was useful in 83% of cases, but in only 3% did it lead to accurate identification of the offender .
Kocsis (2002) – chemistry students produced a more accurate profile on a solved murder case than experienced detectives!

43. The case of Rachel Nickel…
In 1992, 21 year old Rachel was stabbed 47 times and sexually assaulted on Wimbledon Common
Police quickly targeted Colin Stagg, a local man who often walked his dog on the common and fitted the profile investigators had drawn up
Police instigated a ‘honey trap’ – over the next 5 months an undercover police woman pursued Stagg, feigning a romantic interest in him and tried to get him to confess to Rachel’s murder.
But there was no link between Stagg and Rachel’s murder, the judge threw the case out
In 2008, Robert Napper was convicted of Rachel’s murder – he was initially ruled out of the enquiry because he was several inches taller than the profile…

44. Evaluation Essay Points – research / ensure you have the following studies to support your evaluation – check all text books if not in your one
S / E: Canter and Heritage (1990), Lundrigan and Canter (2001), Kocsis et al (2002)
L: Does it consider the role of ‘personality’ in profiling?
C: What would the conflicting model be?
T: Is it scientific? Objective?
S: 45 UK Police Forces were surveyed and 75% said that the process was useful!
L: Most offenders are classified as Marauders so is there really a difference. What if their home doesn’t fall into the centre of the circle?
L: Is the ‘circle’ theory really a circle?
A: Can profiling reliably identify an offender? Can it help narrow down suspects?
BUT…only 3% said that it actually helped to catch the offender.

45. What’s your opinion? Think, pair, share:
What do you think of the two types of offender profiling? Which do you think would be the most effective? Which do you think you would use if you were investigating a crime?

46. Top down or bottom up?!
10 professional profilers in the UK (bottom up approach) and 10 US profilers (top down approach) were given details of a murder case that they had never seen before. All were asked to write a profile on the offender based on the information they were given. The accuracy of the profiles were rated by two independent judges and the difference in accuracy between the UK/US profiles was analysed.
What was the experimental design and why? (2marks)
What is a limitation of the design above. Explain it (3marks)
Explain how the independent judges could have assessed the reliability of the ratings (3marks)
Which statistical test could be used and why? (3marks)
1. Independent groups, 2. Independent groups may contain individual differences which act as PPs variables, which could have a been avoided via matched pairs design 3. test-retest method to test them on separate occasions to see which extent the PPs produce the same answers the second time around. 4. Mann-Whitney U test as it was independent groups and it produced nominal data (the rankings).

47. Exam Practice: 20mins
Discuss investigative psychology and/or geographical profiling. Refer to evidence in your answer (16 marks)