1. Offender profiling

2. Outline what is meant by the terms
compliance and identification. Refer to real
life examples to illustrate your points (6)
Compliance is a type of conformity where people go along with the
majority publically but retain different views privately. This type of
conformity usually occurs because of normative social influence. An
example of compliance is when you say you like a song that your friends are enthusiastic about even though you really like a different kind of music. We do this in order to fit in and be liked and to avoid rejection from the group.
Identification is a type of conformity where we go along with a majority
both publicly and privately but this is only a temporary change. When the
social pressures of the group are no longer there we no longer identify
with their views or beliefs. An example would be going to university and
becoming a vegan because many of your friends at university were
vegan. You would do this publicly and privately until leaving university and reverting back to a meat eater.

3. Scenario question
In a case of an armed robbery which had ended in a fatality, three witnesses had discussed the events with each other soon afterwards whilst receiving counselling. However, one other witness had rejected the offer of counselling and as a consequence, had not discussed the event with anyone. When witness statements were taken a week after the counselling, it was found that the witness who had rejected support gave a testimony that matched information recorded on CCTV, whereas the three witnesses who had attended counselling had offered statements with significant errors when compared with CCTV evidence. Using psychological research, explain why the single witness gave a more accurate testimony than the three witnesses who had been in counselling. (6 marks)

4. Suggested model answer
Research has shown that post event can have the effect of reducing the accuracy of an eye-witness testimony. The three witnesses who had counselling would have discussed the events, which may have changed their recollections of events, leading to their inaccurate reports. Gabbert et al, (2003) found that when discussing events seen on a video clip in pairs, 71% made at least one error in reporting compared to 0% in a control group. This shows that when discussing the events, more errors are likely to occur, which is seen with the three witnesses who discussed the event in counselling. Additionally, the finding that a control group who had not discussed the event made no errors is demonstrated in this scenario as the individual who rejected counselling gave a more accurate testimony. It can be assumed that this witness’s non-discussion meant that their memories were not distorted by others. One explanation of the inaccuracy of the group statements is that it is due to informational social influence. The witnesses may not have been completely certain about the details of the events, and used each other as a source of information to fill in gaps. This could have led to distortions in their memories and the subsequent inaccurate eyewitness accounts. This did not occur with the witness who did not discuss the events.

5. Look up Arthur Shawcross
Bottom up approach
Look up Arthur Shawcross

6. Starter: use the below words to outline the Top-down approach (6 marks)
America crime reconstruction
profile generation
organised offender
Crime classification
36 sexually motivated serial killers
disorganised offender
Modus Operandi Data assimilation

7. The top-down approach to profiling originated in America in the 70’s, when the FBI conducted in-depth interviews with 36 sexually motivated criminals such as Charles Manson and Ted Bundy. The FBI collected data from the interviews alongside crime scene analysis and using the intuition of experienced police to create a classification system for crime. The top down approach begins with Data Assimilation. Data is compiled from police reports, post mortems, crime scene photos etc. Once the data has been assimilated the offender is assigned to a particular category of offender (crime classification). The different typologies of offender are believed to have different psychological characteristics. An organised offender is believed to have high intelligence, be socially competent and be controlling towards the victim. In contrast, a disorganised offender is of low intelligence, has a poor work history and commits the crime spontaneously towards a victim unknown to the offender. The typologies are based on the concept that ‘behaviour reflects personality’. Serious offenders have certain signature ‘ways of working’ (modus operandi) and these generally correlate with a particular set of social and psychological characteristics of the individual. The information gained from the typologies are then used in combination with other evidence to develop hypotheses regarding the behaviour of the offender and of the victim and to develop the modus operandi of the offender. (crime reconstruction). The final stage is profile generation where the police will build a profile regarding the offender’s physical, demographic (age, race, job etc.) and behavioural characteristics (habits and personality). The top-down approach is used predominately for the more extreme/unusual crimes, such as murder, rape and ritualistic crimes.

8. The Bottom-Up Approach to Offender Profiling
Lesson objectives:
Describe the bottom up method
to critically investigate the bottom up approach within offender profiling
To apply to real life case study
To consider comparison points

9. Bottom Up Approach to Profiling
Offender profile emerges based on the data (data to profile)
Does not begin with fixed typologies instead the profile is data driven and emerges as the investigator scrutinises the details of a particular offence. (based on scientific theory and research)
David Canter – Main researcher in this field
Criminal consistency hypothesis: (ways in which the crime might mirror the behaviour of the offender)
Two main types of Bottom-Up Profiling
Investigative Psychology (Interpersonal consistency)
Geographical Profiling (spatial consistency)

10. Investigative Psychology
Aim: generate a picture of the offenders characteristics, routines and background through analysis of the evidence
The aim is to establish patterns of behaviour that are likely to occur or co-exist across crime scenes.
This is in order to develop a statistical database which then acts as a baseline for comparison.
Specific details of an offence, or related offences, can then be matched against this database to reveal important details about the offender, their personal history, social background etc. This may also determine whether a series of crimes are linked in that they are likely to be committed by the same person.

11. Investigative Psychology
Patterns that occur or co-exist across crime scenes are used to generate data about the offender. It is based on psychological theory of matching behavioural patterns to generate data on the offender.
Interpersonal coherence: the way in which an offender behaves at the scene, how they interact with the victim may indicate how they act in everyday life
Significance of time and place: may indicate where the offender is living if the crimes take place within the same forensic “centre of gravity.”
Criminal characteristics / career: e.g. number of times crime repeated, any characteristics over the different crimes that can show a pattern
Forensic awareness. This focusses on those who have been the focus of police attention before. Their behaviour may denote how mindful they are of covering their tracks.
For example, whilst some rapists want to maintain maximum control and humiliate their victims, others are
more apologetic this might tell police something about how the offender relates to women more generally.

12. Geographical profiling
Crime mapping
a technique which uses statistical techniques and psychological principles to determine the likely operational base of an offender. It inputs spatial data into computer systems to produce a 'jeopardy surface'; the redder the area the more likely they are to be located there. It believes this location represents their 'mental map' of that area.

13. Geographical profiling
Uses information to do with the location of linked crime scenes to make inferences about the likely home or operational base of an offender (crime mapping)
Used in conjunction with psychological theory (such as that informed by investigative psychology) to create hypotheses about the offender (modus operandi)
The assumption is that serial offenders will restrict their ‘work’ to areas they are familiar with, so an understanding the spatial pattern of their behaviour provides investigators with a centre of gravity which is likely to include the offender’s base (often in the middle of the spatial pattern).
Rossmo (1997) stated than an offender’s operational base of possible future offences are revealed by the geographical location of their previous crimes.

14. why this generates an accurate offender profile.
Based on the idea of mental maps.
Mental maps are people’s internal representations of the external world and are unique to each individual.
Criminals draw on their mental maps when committing a crime so that an area in which an offence takes place has boundaries.
These are unconscious and are a consequence of the offender’s experience of their environment..

15. Marauder and commuter types of offender
Serial offenders restrict their ‘work’ to areas they are familiar with. Canter and Larkin (1993) proposed two models of offender behaviour The marauder: operates close to their home base The commuter: likely to have travelled a distance away from their usual residence when committing a crime. Crucially though, the pattern of offending is likely to form a circle around their usual residence, and this becomes more apparent the more offences there are. This can offer the investigative team important insight into the nature of the offence and characteristics of the offender.

16. Circle theory
Canter and Larkin suggest that the pattern of offending locations is likely to form a circle around the offenders usual residence, and those becomes more apparent the more offences there are. The offenders spatial decision- making can provide insight into the nature of the offender (employment, mode of transport etc…)

17. John Duffy: The Railway Rapist complete the worksheet

18. John Duffy, the “Railway Rapist”
24 sexual attacks in the 1980s and 3 murders in railway stations across North London.
David Canter analysed geographical information from similar crime scenes and details of similar attacks to draw up a surprisingly accurate profile of Duffy using bottom-up profiling techniques.

19. John Duffy Documentary Clip:

21. Canter profile Canter left True facts right Lives in Kilburn
Lived in Kilburn
Marriage problems
Separated
Physically small, unattractive
5ft 4in with acne
Martial artist
Member of a martial arts club
Need to dominate women
Violent – attacked wife
Fantasies of rape, bandage
Tied up his wife before sex
Knowledge of the railway
He worked for the railway as a carpenter
Experience with police or knowledge of procedures
He had a criminal record and combed the pubic hair of the victims to remove evidence of his own
Canter left
True facts right

22. John Duffy: The Railway Rapist
Highlight key points linked to Bottom up profiling.
Answer the apply it question on P 324 in your workbook
Directed study – watch the documentary on the John Duffy

23. The case of Adrian Babb
• Not violent because only necessary force used.
• Athletic build suggests solitary sports interest - for example, body-building or swimming.
• Cleanliness and organization suggests he was obsessive.
• No attempts to avoid forensic evidence suggested he was not aware of police procedures, thus not
convicted before for this type of crime. Possible previous conviction for minor sexual offences.
• Ease with older women suggests dealing with elderly people in non-offence context.
• Knowledge of tower blocks suggests he lives in one. Based on this report, a police detective searched

24. The case of Adrian Babb
Through the records of minor sexual offenders, and found a match between Babb's fingerprints and those at the scene of crime. It was the lack of forensic awareness that led to his arrest. Babb was a swimming pool attendant, hence the cleanliness and lack of body odour, and he looked after sessions for the elderly.

25. Describe the bottom up approach (6 marks)
Task
Describe the bottom up approach (6 marks)

26. Outline the bottom up approach to offender profiling (6 marks)
The British, or ‘bottom-up’, approach is more scientific than the American approach in that it uses more psychological theories and methodologies. This approach looks for ways in which the crime might mirror the behaviour of the offender in every day life – the Criminal Consistency Hypothesis (Canter (1989). This consistency principle has been applied to two areas: interactions between the victim and the offender (interpersonal consistency); and the geographical area in which the criminal commits the offence (spatial consistency). Within interpersonal consistency it is argued, for example, that the degree of violence used in serious crimes, especially rape, may reflect how the criminal treats other women in his non-criminal life. Spatial consistency is based on the idea of mental maps; criminals then draw on these mental maps when committing a crime. Two types of offenders were highlighted: the marauders who use a fixed base (usually home) and offend around that central point; or commuters who travel far to the location of the crime to disassociate themselves from the geographic location.

27. Evaluation of the Bottom-Up Approach castles
In pairs, discuss the issues with using this approach.

28. Evaluation Other factors are important
Location is important but there are other factors that need to be taken into account, such as their psychological characteristics
Concentrating on location may cause an investigator to miss important information if used in isolation

29. Evaluation Evidence supports geographical profiling
Lundrigan and Canter (2001) collated information from 120 murder cases involving serial killers in the USA. Analysis revealed spatial consistency in the behaviour of the offenders. The effect was more noticeable for offenders who travelled short distances (marauders).
This supports Canter’s claim that spatial information is a key factor in determining the base of an offender.

30. Evaluation Works for different crimes
Geographical profiling helps to locate offenders of many different types of crime e.g. it can be used to locate the likely home of burglars given that they concentrate their crimes in a familiar place, often close to home.
Therefore it can be widely applied to many different types of crime.

31. Evaluation Based on research and statistical likelihood
It is based heavily on research and statistical likelihood. This means that it is seen to be more scientific than top-down approaches. This use of statistics and theory has removed intuition of the profiler from the process, which is argued to make it more reliable.

32. Evaluation Mixed results for profiling
Despite the successes, there have been some significant failures (e.g. Rachel Nickell). Copson (1995) surveyed 48 police forces and found that the advice provided by the profiler was useful in 83% of cases, but in only 3% did it lead to accurate identification of the offender .
Kocsis (2002) – chemistry students produced a more accurate profile on a solved murder case than experienced detectives!

33. The case of Rachel Nickel…
In 1992, 21 year old Rachel was stabbed 47 times and sexually assaulted on Wimbledon Common
Police quickly targeted Colin Stagg, a local man who often walked his dog on the common and fitted the profile investigators had drawn up
Police instigated a ‘honey trap’ – over the next 5 months an undercover police woman pursued Stagg, feigning a romantic interest in him and tried to get him to confess to Rachel’s murder.
But there was no link between Stagg and Rachel’s murder, the judge threw the case out
In 2008, Robert Napper was convicted of Rachel’s murder – he was initially ruled out of the enquiry because he was several inches taller than the profile…

34. Evaluation Essay Points – research / ensure you have the following studies to support your evaluation – check all text books if not in your one
S / E: Canter and Heritage (1990), Lundrigan and Canter (2001), Kocsis et al (2002)
L: Does it consider the role of ‘personality’ in profiling?
C: What would the conflicting model be?
T: Is it scientific? Objective?
S: 45 UK Police Forces were surveyed and 75% said that the process was useful!
L: Most offenders are classified as Marauders so is there really a difference. What if their home doesn’t fall into the centre of the circle?
L: Is the ‘circle’ theory really a circle?
A: Can profiling reliably identify an offender? Can it help narrow down suspects?
BUT…only 3% said that it actually helped to catch the offender.

35. What’s your opinion? Think, pair, share:
What do you think of the two types of offender profiling? Which do you think would be the most effective? Which do you think you would use if you were investigating a crime?

36. Top down or bottom up?!
10 professional profilers in the UK (bottom up approach) and 10 US profilers (top down approach) were given details of a murder case that they had never seen before. All were asked to write a profile on the offender based on the information they were given. The accuracy of the profiles were rated by two independent judges and the difference in accuracy between the UK/US profiles was analysed.
What was the experimental design and why? (2marks)
What is a limitation of the design above. Explain it (3marks)
Explain how the independent judges could have assessed the reliability of the ratings (3marks)
Which statistical test could be used and why? (3marks)
1. Independent groups, 2. Independent groups may contain individual differences which act as PPs variables, which could have a been avoided via matched pairs design 3. test-retest method to test them on separate occasions to see which extent the PPs produce the same answers the second time around. 4. Mann-Whitney U test as it was independent groups and it produced nominal data (the rankings).

37. Exam Practice: 20mins
Discuss investigative psychology and/or geographical profiling. Refer to evidence in your answer (16 marks)