1. Cellular Reproduction
Chapter 9
Cellular Reproduction

2. Section 1
Cellular Growth

3. Ratio of Surface Area to Volume:
as the surface area is doubled each time, the volume of the inside of the cell also doubles, making the cell less efficient
BUT WHY DO CELLS HAVE TO BE EFFICIENT??

4. Transport of Substances
Substances move by diffusion or by motor proteins.
Substances move by diffusion or by motor proteins.
Diffusion over large distances is slow and inefficient.
Small cells maintain more efficient transport systems.

5. Cellular Communications
The need for signaling proteins to move throughout the cell also limits cell size.
Cell size affects the ability of the cell to communicate instructions for cellular functions.
SO, WHAT STOPS A CELL FROM GROWING?
OR, DOES IT GROW FOREVER?

6. The Cell Cycle
Cell division prevents the cell from becoming too large.
It also is the way the cell reproduces so that you grow and heal certain injuries.
Cells reproduce by a cycle of growing and dividing called the cell cycle.

7. Steps of The Cell Cycle
Interphase is the stage during which the cell grows, carries out cellular functions, and replicates.
Mitosis is the stage of the cell cycle during which the cell’s nucleus and nuclear material divide.
Cytokinesis is the method by which a cell’s cytoplasm divides, creating a new cell.

8. The Stages of Interphase
The first stage of interphase, G1
The cell is growing, carrying out normal cell functions, and preparing to replicate DNA.

9. The Second Stage of Interphase, S
The cell copies its DNA in preparation for cell division.

10. The Third Stage of Interphase, G2
The cell prepares for the division of its nucleus.

11. Section 2
Mitosis and Cytokinesis

12. The Stages of Mitosis
Prophase
The cell’s chromatin tightens.
Sister chromatids are attached at the centromere.
Spindle fibers form in the cytoplasm.

13. The nuclear envelope seems to disappear.
Spindle fibers attach to the sister chromatids.

14. Metaphase
Sister chromatids are pulled along the spindle apparatus toward the center of the cell.
They line up in the middle of the cell.

15. Anaphase
The microtubules of the spindle apparatus begin to shorten.
The sister chromatids separate.
The chromosomes move toward the poles of the cell.

16. Telophase
The chromosomes arrive at the poles and begin to relax.
Two new nuclear membranes begin to form and the nucleoli reappear.
The spindle apparatus disassembles.

17. Cytokinesis
In animal cells, microfilaments constrict, or pinch, the cytoplasm.
In plant cells, a new structure, called a cell plate, forms.

18. VIDEO

19. Section 3
Cell Cycle Regulation
VIDEO

20. Normal Cell Cycle
Different cyclin/CDK combinations signal other activities, including DNA replication, protein synthesis, and nuclear division throughout the cell cycle.

21. Quality Control Checkpoints
The cell cycle has built-in checkpoints that monitor the cycle and can stop it if something goes wrong.
Spindle checkpoints also have been identified in mitosis.

22. Abnormal Cell Cycle: Cancer
Cancer is the uncontrolled growth and division of cells; checkpoints fail!
Cancer cells can kill an organism by crowding out normal cells, resulting in the loss of tissue function.
Cancer cells spend less time in interphase, so they do not grow like they should.

23. Causes of Cancer
The changes that occur in the regulation of cell growth and division of cancer cells are due to mutations.
DNA that makes proteins are not made properly.
Causes of Cancer
Genetics
getting old, heritibilty
Various environmental factors
Substances that are known to cause cancer are called carcinogens.
tobacco, ultraviolet radiation

24. Apoptosis
Programmed cell death
Cells going through apoptosis actually shrink and shrivel in a controlled process.

25. Stem Cells
Unspecialized cells that can develop into specialized cells when under the right conditions
VIDEO

26. Embryonic Stem Cells
After fertilization, the resulting mass of cells divides repeatedly until there are about 100–150 cells. These cells have not become specialized.
The embryo will then continue to divide and cells will become more specialized to make tissues, organs, organ systems.

27. Adult Stem Cells
Found in various tissues in the body and might be used to maintain and repair the same kind of tissue
Less controversial because the adult stem cells can be obtained with the consent of their donor