1. LIFE-SPAN DEVELOPMENT12
A Topical Approach to
LIFE-SPAN DEVELOPMENT
Gender and Sexuality
John W. Santrock

2. Gender and Sexuality
Biological, Social, and Cognitive Influences on Gender
Gender Comparisons and Classification
Gender Development through the Life Span
Exploring Sexuality
Sexuality through the Life Span

3. Gender and Sex Gender — social dimension of being female or male
Biological, Social, and Cognitive Influences on Gender
Gender and Sex
Gender — social dimension of being female or male
Gender role: set of expectations prescribing how females and males should act, feel, and think
Gender typing: process by which children acquire thoughts, behaviors, and feelings culturally appropriate for their gender
Sex — designates the biological aspects of being female or male

4. Biological Influences
Biological, Social, and Cognitive Influences on Gender
Biological Influences
Chromosomes — 23rd pair with X and Y
Hormones
Estrogens
Estradiol influences development of female physical sex characteristics and helps regulate menstrual cycle
Androgens
Testosterone promotes development of male genitals and secondary sex characteristics

5. Biological Influences
Biological, Social, and Cognitive Influences on Gender
Biological Influences
Examples of conditions from unusual levels of sex hormones early in development
Congenital adrenal hyperplasia (CAH)
Androgen-insensitive males
Pelvic field defect
Failed sex reassignment

6. Evolutionary Psychology View of Gender
Biological, Social, and Cognitive Influences on Gender
Evolutionary Psychology View of Gender
Differing roles in reproduction placed different pressures on males and females
Key gender differences in sexual attitudes and sexual behaviors
Males — competition, violence, risk-taking
Females — parenting effort, selection of successful mate

7. Social Influences Differences due to social experiences
Biological, Social, and Cognitive Influences on Gender
Social Influences
Differences due to social experiences
Social role theory: gender differences result from contrasting roles of men and women
Psychoanalytic theory of gender: claims child identifies with same-sex parent by age 5 or 6
Many disagree, claiming gender learned much earlier (even in absence of same-sex parent)

8. Social Influences Differences due to social experiences
Biological, Social, and Cognitive Influences on Gender
Social Influences
Differences due to social experiences
Social cognitive theory of gender — gender development results from observation and imitation, use of rewards and punishments for gender-appropriate behaviors

9. Cognitive Influences Cognitive development theory of gender
Biological, Social, and Cognitive Influences on Gender
Cognitive Influences
Cognitive development theory of gender
Children’s gender typing occurs after they think of themselves as boys and girls; gender constancy must be achieved first
Once consistently conceived as male or female, children prefer activities, objects, and attitudes consistent with this label

10. Cognitive Influences Gender schema theory
Biological, Social, and Cognitive Influences on Gender
Cognitive Influences
Gender schema theory
Gender typing emerges gradually in gender schemas of what is culturally gender-appropriate and inappropriate
Gender-typed behavior can occur before children develop gender constancy
Gender schemas fuel gender typing

11. Gender Comparisons and Classification
Gender Stereotyping
Broad categories that reflect our impressions and beliefs about females and males
Traditional masculinity and femininity
Males instrumental
Females expressive
Stereotyping varies with culture
Stereotyping of occupations

12. Young Children’s Judgments about Competency in Stereotyped Occupations
Gender Comparisons and Classification
Young Children’s Judgments about Competency in Stereotyped Occupations
Fig. 12.3

13. Gender Similarities and Differences
Gender Comparisons and Classification
Gender Similarities and Differences
Physical differences
Females have longer life expectancy
Females less likely to develop mental or physical disorders
Males have higher levels of stress hormones causing faster clotting and higher blood pressure

14. Gender Similarities and Differences
Gender Comparisons and Classification
Gender Similarities and Differences
Physical differences
Female brains are smaller, have more folds
Part of hypothalamus involved in sexual behavior is larger in men
Area of parietal lobe functioning in visuospatial skills is larger in males
Areas of brain involved in emotional expression show more activity in females

15. Cognitive Similarities and Differences
Gender Comparisons and Classification
Cognitive Similarities and Differences
Some claim males better at math and visuospatial skills and females better at verbal skills
Others claim differences exaggerated
National standardized tests
Boys slightly better at math and science
Girls better at reading and writing
Overall, girls superior students to boys

16. Visuospatial Skills of Males and Females
Gender Comparisons and Classification
Visuospatial Skills of Males and Females
Fig. 12.4

17. Socioemotional Similarities and Differences
Gender Comparisons and Classification
Socioemotional Similarities and Differences
Aggression
Males more physically aggressive in all cultures
Females more verbally aggressive; use relational aggression more than men
Self-Regulation
Males show less self-regulation, can lead to behavioral problems
Controversies over psychological differences

18. Socioemotional Similarities and Differences
Gender Comparisons and Classification
Socioemotional Similarities and Differences
Gender in context
Gender varies across contexts
Males more likely to help in perceived danger
Females more likely to volunteer to help with child
Girls show more care-giving behaviors than boys
Males more likely to show anger towards strangers and turn anger into aggression
Cultural backgrounds influence socialization

19. Masculinity, Femininity, and Androgyny
Gender Comparisons and Classification
Masculinity, Femininity, and Androgyny
Androgyny — presence of masculine and feminine characteristics in same individual
Bem Sex-Role Inventory:
Instrumental, expressive traits
Context influencing gender role is adaptive
Gender-role transcendence — people should be evaluated as persons, not in terms of femininity, masculinity, or androgyny

20. Bem’s Gender-Role Classification
Gender Comparisons and Classification
Bem’s Gender-Role Classification
Fig. 12.5

21. Gender Development in Childhood
Gender Development through the Life-Span
Gender Development in Childhood
Children form many ideas about what the sexes are like from about 1½ to 3 years of age
Boys receive earlier and more intense gender socialization
Children show clear preference for same-sex peers
Gender roles becoming more flexible

22. Gender Development in Adolescence
Gender Development through the Life-Span
Gender Development in Adolescence
Transition point; changes in puberty
Gender-intensification hypothesis
Psychological and behavioral differences between boys and girls become greater during early adolescence
Increased socialization pressures to conform to traditional gender roles
Mixed messages and special problems

23. Adulthood and Aging Women’s Gender Development
Gender Development through the Life-Span
Adulthood and Aging
Women’s Gender Development
Women often try to actively participate in others’ development
Emotionally
Intellectually
Socially
Women maintain competency, self-motivation, and self-determination in relationships

24. Communication Between Men and Women
Gender Development through the Life-Span
Communication Between Men and Women
Rapport talk
Language of conversation, a way to establish connections and negotiate relationships
Preferred by women
Report talk
Language designed to give information, including public speaking
Preferred by men

25. Adulthood and Aging Men’s gender development
Gender Development through the Life-Span
Adulthood and Aging
Men’s gender development
Male roles are contradictory and inconsistent
Can cause role-strain in
Health
Male-female relationships
Male-male relationships

26. Gender and Aging Parental imperative
Gender Development through the Life-Span
Gender and Aging
Parental imperative
Mothers and fathers adopt different gender roles so they can raise children more effectively
Older women face double jeopardy of ageism and sexism
Older men become more feminine, less active, and more sensitive in relationships

27. Biological and Cultural Factors
Exploring Sexuality
Biological and Cultural Factors
Biological
Sexual behavior is influenced by sex hormones
Sexual behavior is so individualized in humans that it is difficult to specify hormonal effects
Sexual motivation also influenced by cultural factors

28. Biological and Cultural Factors
Exploring Sexuality
Biological and Cultural Factors
Cultural factors
Range of sexual values across cultures is substantial
Sexual scripts — stereotyped expectancy patterns for how people should behave sexually
Traditional religious script — sex is accepted only within marriage; sex is for reproduction and sometimes affection
Romantic script — sex synonymous with love

29. The 1994 Sex in America Survey
Exploring Sexuality
The 1994 Sex in America Survey
Cohabiting (married)
Noncohabiting
Men
Women 1%
2 to 3 times a week 3%
Never
A few times a year
A few times a month
4 or more times a week
Fig. 12.6

30. Sexual Orientation Heterosexual attitudes and behavior
Exploring Sexuality
Sexual Orientation
Heterosexual attitudes and behavior
Different categories for frequency of sex
Married couples have sex more often
Most couples enjoy traditional sex
Adultery is exception, not the rule
Men think about sex more than women
Most lead conservative sexual lives

31. Sexual Orientation Attitudes and behaviors of lesbians and gay males
Exploring Sexuality
Sexual Orientation
Attitudes and behaviors of lesbians and gay males
Sexual orientation is on continuum
Bisexual: sexually attracted to both sexes
Research on biological and hormonal differences on sexual preferences unclear
Area of hypothalamus governing sexual behavior 2x larger in heterosexual males

32. The Continuum of Sexual Orientation
Exploring Sexuality
The Continuum of Sexual Orientation 3
Largely heterosexual but more than incidental homosexualbehavior
Exclusively heterosexual behavior 1
Largely heterosexual but incidental homosexualbehavior
Equal amounts of heterosexual and homosexualbehavior 4
Largely homosexual but more than incidental heterosexualbehavior 5
Largely homosexual but incidental heterosexualbehavior 6
Exclusively homosexual behavior
Fig. 12.7

33. Sexual Orientation Attitudes and behaviors of lesbians and gay males
Exploring Sexuality
Sexual Orientation
Attitudes and behaviors of lesbians and gay males
Gender differences appearing in heterosexual relationships also occurs in homosexual relationships
Gay and lesbians experience life as minorities in dominant culture, with bicultural identity

34. Sexually Transmitted Infections
Exploring Sexuality
Sexually Transmitted Infections
Gonorrhea
Syphilis
Chlamydia
Genital Herpes
HPV – causes genital warts
AIDS – sexually-transmitted disease caused by the human immunodeficiency virus (HIV)

35. Protecting Against STIs
Exploring Sexuality
Protecting Against STIs
Education and development of effective drug treatments
Only safe behavior is abstinence
Know your and your partner’s risk status
Obtain medical examinations
Have protected, not unprotected, sex
Don’t have sex with multiple partners

36. Forcible Sexual Behavior
Exploring Sexuality
Forcible Sexual Behavior
Rape
Forcible sexual intercourse without consent; legal definitions vary by state
Victims reluctant to report rape; inaccurate stats
Occurs more often in large cities; 200,000 rapes reported annually in U.S.
Date or acquaintance rape of concern in colleges

37. Exploring Sexuality
Sexual Harassment
Ranging from remarks to physical contact, blatant propositions to sexual assaults
Most victims are women in educational and workplace settings
Has serious psychological effects on victim
One person’s manifestation of power over another

38. Rape Victim-Offender Relationships
Exploring Sexuality
Rape Victim-Offender Relationships 50 40 30 20 10
Friend
Percentage of sample
Classmate
Boyfriend/ ex-boyfriend
Acquaintance
Offender
Other
Fig. 12.8

39. Child Sexuality Majority of children engage in some sex play
Sexuality through the Life-Span
Child Sexuality
Majority of children engage in some sex play
Usually with friends or siblings
Exhibiting or inspecting the genitals
Most motivated by curiosity
Sex play declines, but sexual interest remains high in elementary school years

40. Adolescent Sexuality Adolescence
Sexuality through the Life-Span
Adolescent Sexuality
Adolescence
Time of sexual exploration, experimentation, fantasies, and incorporating sexuality into one’s identity
Most have insatiable curiosity about sex
Majority develop mature sexual identity; most have times of vulnerability and confusion
Societies vary in response to adolescent sexuality

41. Developing a Sexual Identity
Sexuality through the Life-Span
Developing a Sexual Identity
Multifaceted challenge to manage new feelings, develop identity and self-regulation
Great variety in orientations, interest levels, anxiety levels, activity, and reasons for choices in activity
Gay or lesbian identity: coming-out
Homosexual behavior in adolescence may not continue into adulthood

42. Adolescent Sexual Behaviors
Sexuality through the Life-Span
Adolescent Sexual Behaviors
Typical progression of sexual behavior
Kissing, followed by petting
Intercourse, or oral sex (increased substantially)
Males report being active before females
Most have sexual intercourse by mid-teens
Timing of sexual initiation varies widely by country and gender

43. Risk Factors, Youth Assets, and Sexual Problems
Sexuality through the Life-Span
Risk Factors, Youth Assets, and Sexual Problems
Personal risk factors
Ineffective or lack of use of contraceptives
Early maturation linked to early sexual initiation; varies by ethnic group
Lack of self-regulation
Contextual risk factors
Family parenting and SES
Neighborhood environment

44. Other Risks Sexually transmitted infections Adolescent pregnancy
Sexuality through the Life-Span
Other Risks
Sexually transmitted infections
Africa: girls infected with HIV by adult men
Adolescent pregnancy
U.S. adolescent pregnancy rates decreasing; but one of highest rates in developed world
Cross-cultural studies on sexual active adolescents

45. Cross-Cultural Comparisons of Pregnancy
Sexuality through the Life-Span
Cross-Cultural Comparisons of Pregnancy
Births per 1,000 women 15 to 19 years old 60 40
1975 80 20
1990
1970
1980
1995
2000
Year
1985
Fig

46. Decreasing U.S. Adolescent Pregnancy Rates
Sexuality through the Life-Span
Decreasing U.S. Adolescent Pregnancy Rates
Greatest decline in 1990s
Increased contraceptive use
Fear of STIs
Education and health classes
Economic prosperity in 1990s
Greatest drop in African American girls aged 15-17
Latin American girls most likely to get pregnant

47. Consequences of Adolescent Pregnancy
Sexuality through the Life-Span
Consequences of Adolescent Pregnancy
Health risks for mother and child
Low birth rate in newborns linked to infant mortality, neurological problems, childhood illness
Young mothers more likely to
Drop out of school; were low achievers in school
Have history of conduct problems
Come from low-income backgrounds
Live in poverty

48. Sexuality and Aging Middle adulthood
Sexuality through the Life-Span
Sexuality and Aging
Middle adulthood
Climacteric — midlife transition in which fertility ends or declines
Women — Menopause late forties or early fifties
Men — less testosterone, less desire, possible erectile dysfunction (Viagra)
Ability to function slows little, frequency drops

49. Sexuality and Aging Late adulthood
Sexuality through the Life-Span
Sexuality and Aging
Late adulthood
Men experience more changes than women
Orgasm less frequent
More direct stimulation needed
Erection problems more likely after 65
Sexuality can be lifelong
Two-thirds of older adults satisfied

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The End