1. INFS 112 Introduction to information management
Session 3 – Information for decision-making
Lecturer: Dr. Perpetua S. Dadzie, Dept. of Information Studies
Contact Information:

2. Session Overview
At the end of the session, the student will be able to:
Describe the characteristics of ‘good’ information
Describe the levels of decision-making in an organization
Identify the types of information needed at each level
Explain the concept of information overload
Identify causes, impact and how to reduce information overload
Dr. Perpetua Dadzie, Dept of Information Studies

3. Session Outline
The key topics to be covered in the session are as follows:
Topic One - Characteristics of Information
Topic Two - Levels of decision-making
Topic Three – Types of information needed at each level
Topic Four – Managing Information overload
Topic Five - Overcoming information overload
Dr. Perpetua Dadzie, Dept of Information Studies

4. Reading List
Palmer, S. & Weaver, M. (1998). Information Management. Oxford: Butterworth Heinemann. p. 8
Elearn (2009). Information and Knowledge Management. Revised Edition. Burlington, MA: Elsevier Ltd. (e-book).pp ; pp
Dr. Perpetua Dadzie, Dept of Information Studies

5. The characteristics of information
Topic One
The characteristics of information
Dr. Perpetua Dadzie, Dept of Information Studies

6. Characteristics of Information
Good information is that which is used and which creates value
Good information is relevant for its purpose, sufficiently accurate for its purpose, complete enough for the problem, reliable and targeted to the right person. 
It is also communicated in time for its purpose, contains the right level of detail and is communicated by an appropriate channel, i.e. one that is understandable to the user.
Dr. Perpetua Dadzie, Dept of Information Studies

7. Characteristics of Information (2)
Eight characteristics of good information
Accuracy – Information needs to be accurate enough for the use to which it is going to be put
Reliability or objectivity – Reliability deals with the truth of information or the objectivity with which it is presented
Relevance /appropriateness – Information must be relevant to the purpose for which it is required. It must be suitable
Dr. Perpetua Dadzie, Dept of Information Studies

8. Characteristics of Information (3)
Completeness – should contain all the details required by the user
Availability/accessibility – should be easy to obtain or access
Level of detail/conciseness – should be in a form that is short enough to allow for its examination and use.
Presentation – information can be more easily assimilated if it is aesthetically pleasing
Dr. Perpetua Dadzie, Dept of Information Studies

9. Characteristics of Information (4)
Timely – must be on time for the purpose for which it is required
Cost-effectiveness – should be available within set cost levels that may vary dependent on situation
Dr. Perpetua Dadzie, Dept of Information Studies

10. Video What are the characteristics of good information
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Dr. Perpetua Dadzie, Dept of Information Studies

11. Levels of decision-making
Topic Two
Levels of decision-making
Dr. Perpetua Dadzie, Dept of Information Studies

12. Levels of Decision-making
Decisions are made up of a composite of data, information, facts and belief. Thus a decision:
Is only as good as the data that informed it
Is only as good as it is an informed one
Is only as good as the system which exists to implement
Is only good if you have the means to implement it
Is only good if other people understand it and what it means
Dr. Perpetua Dadzie, Dept of Information Studies

13. Levels of Decision-making (2)
Decisions are made at three broad levels within the organization.
Strategic decision-making :
determines the objectives, resources and policies of the organisation; predicting the future of the organisation and its environment and matching the characteristics of the organisation to the environment.
Strategic decisions made by top management who deal with complex, non-routine problems.
Dr. Perpetua Dadzie, Dept of Information Studies

14. Levels of Decision-making (3)
Tactical decision-making
concerned with how efficiently and effectively resources are utilised and how well operational units are performing.
Management control requires close interaction with those that are carrying out the tasks of the organisation.
Dr. Perpetua Dadzie, Dept of Information Studies

15. Levels of Decision-making (4)
Tactical decision-making.....
It takes place within the context of broad policies and objectives set out by strategic decision making ;it requires an intimate knowledge of operational decision making and task completion.
Tactical decisions made by middle level management
Dr. Perpetua Dadzie, Dept of Information Studies

16. Levels of Decision-making (5)
Operational decision-making
determines how to carry out the specific tasks set forth by strategic and middle management decision makers.
Determining which units in the organisation will carry out the task, establishing criteria for completion and resource utilisation and evaluating outputs all require decisions about operational control.
Operational decisions made by Junior management
Dr. Perpetua Dadzie, Dept of Information Studies

17. Levels of Decision-making (6)
Anthony Triangle
Dr. Perpetua Dadzie, Dept of Information Studies

18. Types of information needed at each level
Topic Three
Types of information needed at each level
Dr. Perpetua Dadzie, Dept of Information Studies

19. Information needs at strategic level
Strategic information:
Comes from external sources
Scope of information is very wide, not defined
Level of detail is broad, summarised
Currency of information requires future information
Timeliness is not urgent
Infrequent (annual)
Level of precision is low, approximate, qualitative
Dr. Perpetua Dadzie, Dept of Information Studies

20. Information needs at tactical level
Tactical information:
Comes from external and internal sources
Scope of information is intermediate
Level of detail is partly summarised
Currency of information requires future, present, past
Timeliness some urgency required
Frequency regular (monthly)
Level of precision is fairly precise, quantitative and qualitative
Dr. Perpetua Dadzie, Dept of Information Studies

21. Information needs at Operational level
Operational information:
Comes from internal sources
Scope of information is narrow and well-defined
Detailed information required
Currency of information requires past information
Timeliness Immediate information required
Frequency daily/hourly
Level of precision is exact, quantitative
Dr. Perpetua Dadzie, Dept of Information Studies

22. Managing information overload
Topic Four
Managing information overload
Dr. Perpetua Dadzie, Dept of Information Studies

23. Managing Information Overload
Information Overload: the inability to process large amounts of information and the state of stress which occurs when there is too much information available.
the difficulty a person can have understanding an issue and making decisions that can be caused by the presence of too much information.
Dr. Perpetua Dadzie, Dept of Information Studies

24. Managing Information Overload (2)
The result is either that you either delay making decisions, or that you make the wrong decisions.
Information and communication technologies play a role in the experience of overload: the Internet, , voice mail, mobile phones, intranets
Dr. Perpetua Dadzie, Dept of Information Studies

25. Causes of Information Overload
Widespread access to the Web
The ease of sending messages to large numbers of people. A general increase in unsolicited information (think of all the junk mail you get)
As information can be duplicated for free, there is no variable cost in producing more copies – people send reports and information to people who may need to know, rather than definitely need to know.
Dr. Perpetua Dadzie, Dept of Information Studies

26. Causes of Information Overload (2)
Poorly created information sources (especially online), which:
are not simplified or filtered to make them shorter
are not written clearly, so people have to spend more time understanding them
contain factual errors or inconsistencies – requiring further research
Dr. Perpetua Dadzie, Dept of Information Studies

27. Causes of Information Overload (3)
There’s a lot more information around to collect, and it’s
increasing all the time
The fear of missing out on some vital piece of information that your colleagues may already know about
The perception that this is what you have to do to be well informed
To justify the decisions you make
To collect information in case it might be useful one day
Dr. Perpetua Dadzie, Dept of Information Studies

28. Causes of Information Overload (4)
Having a piled up in-tray and a cluttered desk demonstrates how busy and important you are
You get the same information from a lot of different sources (this includes reports and articles which basically repeat a large percentage of their content)
Cross-checking that the original information you have is accurate
Getting on everyone’s ‘copy-to’ (cc) mail list so that you don’t miss out
Poor information searching skills, so that a lot of irrelevant information is retrieved.
Dr. Perpetua Dadzie, Dept of Information Studies

29. Impact of Information Overload
Loss of productive time
Reduced mental capacity
Disappearance of quality "thinking time"
Breakdown of organizational processes
Effective communication
Meeting effectiveness
Manager/subordinate interaction
Task and work planning
Dr. Perpetua Dadzie, Dept of Information Studies

30. Impact of Information Overload (2)
Reduced quality of life
Increased cardiovascular stress, due to a rise in blood pressure
Weakened vision
Confusion (see below) and frustration
Impaired judgment based upon overconfidence
Decreased benevolence to others due to an environmental input glut
Dr. Perpetua Dadzie, Dept of Information Studies

31. Overcoming information overload
Topic Five
Overcoming information overload
Dr. Perpetua Dadzie, Dept of Information Studies

32. Solutions to Information Overload
Set information objectives. What is important to you? What information do you need to advance your career? What information will help you at school?
Select your information sources. Focusing on quality of information, rather than quantity. A short concise is more valuable than a long .
Filter aggressively. Spend less time on gaining information that is nice to know and more time on things that we need to know now.
Dr. Perpetua Dadzie, Dept of Information Studies

33. Solutions to Information Overload
Be direct in what you ask people, so that they can provide short precise answers. Single-tasking, and keeping the mind focused on one issue at a time.
Spending parts of the day disconnected from interruptions (e.g. switch off , telephones, Web, etc.) so you can fully concentrate for a significant period of time on one thing.
Dr. Perpetua Dadzie, Dept of Information Studies

34. Activities
Dr. Perpetua Dadzie, Dept of Information Studies

35. References
Dr. Perpetua Dadzie, Dept of Information Studies