1. ANATOMY AND PHYSIOLOGY OF BIRDS PRESENTATION BONES IN BIRDS

3. MAJOR BONES  DIVIDED INTO LONG, SHORT, IRREGULAR AND FLAT BONES LONG BONES FEMUR FIBULA TIBLOTASARL HUMERUS TARSOMETATARSAL ULNA &RADIUS CARACOID

4. FUNCTIONS THE SPECIFIC FUNCTIONAL UNIT OF THESE BONES IS FOR LEVERAGE

5. SHORT BONES TARSAL EPISTROPHEUS FUNCTION FUNCTIONAL UNIT IS TO PROVIDE STABILITY, SUPPORT, WHILE ALLOWING SOME MOTION

6. FLAT BONES STERNUM RIBS SCAPULAE CRANIAL BONES (OCCIPITAL BONE) MAJOR FUNCTION POINTS OF ATTACHMENT FOR MUSCLES

7. IRREGULAR BONES FUSED REAR VERTEBRAE AND PELVIS ISCHIUM ILIUM FACIAL BONES (NASAL BONE LACHRYMAL BONE INCISIVE BONE) PYGOSTYLE MAJOR FUNCTION PROTECT INTERNAL ORGANS

8. SESAMOID BONES PATELLA MAJOR FUNCTION PROTECT TENDONS FROM COMPRESSIVE FORCES

9. MAJOR MUSCLES OF BIRDS

10. FUNCTIONS WE HAVE A LARGE, PROMINENT BREAST MUSCLE, CALLED THE PECTORALIS MAJOR. THAT ORIGINATES ALONG THE STERNUM, AND INSERTS NEAR THE HEAD OF THE HUMERUS. WHEN THE BREAST MUSCLE CONTRACTS, IT BRINGS THE ARM CLOSE TO THE BODY. (THE MOTION IS LIKE A BIRD'S DOWN STROKE.

11. CONT…. THE PECTORALIS IS A LARGE MUSCLE THAT ATTACHES TO THE HUMERUS OF THE WING AT THE DELTOPECTORAL CREST. ITS MAIN PORTION (STERNOBRACHIALIS, SB) ORIGINATES FROM AN ENLARGED STERNAL KEEL, WITH MORE ANTERIOR FIBRES ARISING FROM THE FURCULA, OR ‘WISHBONE’. A MUCH SMALLER PORTION (THORACOBRACHIALIS, TB) ORIGINATES DORSALLY FROM RIBS. IN ADDITION TO PRODUCING MECHANICAL WORK DURING DOWNSTROKE, THE PECTORALIS ALSO PRONATES THE WING. THE SMALLER SUPRACORACOIDEUS LIES DEEP TO THE PECTORALIS, ALSO ORIGINATING FROM THE KEEL OF THE STERNUM, AND IS ABOUT ONE-FIFTH OF THE PECTORALIS IN MASS

12. …… TWO SMALLER MUSCLES, THE TRICEPS AND BICEPS, OPERATE OVER A SMALLER RANGE OF CONTRACTILE STRAINS, REFLECTING THEIR ROLE IN CONTROLLING WING SHAPE THROUGH ELBOW FLEXION AND EXTENSION. THE SMALLER SUPRACORACOIDEUS MUSCLE OF BIRDS, ABOUT ONE-FIFTH THE SIZE OF THE PECTORALIS, IS THE PRIMARY WING ELEVATOR ACTIVE DURING UPSTROKE, PARTICULARLY AT SLOW TO MODERATE SPEEDS AND DURING HOVERING (AT FASTER FLIGHT SPEEDS, WING ELEVATION IS PROBABLY PRODUCED PASSIVELY BY AERODYNAMIC FORCES ACTING ON THE WINGS, WHICH REMAIN EXTENDED DURING UPSTROKE TO MAINTAIN LIFT THROUGH BOUND CIRCULATION.

13. …… SMALLER EXTRINSIC AND INTRINSIC WING MUSCLES ASSIST IN MODULATING WING ORIENTATION AND CONTROLLING WING SHAPE. THESE MUSCLES PROBABLY CONTRIBUTE TO ADJUSTMENTS OF THE WING'S PERFORMANCE AS AN AEROFOIL AND, THUS, MAY INDIRECTLY AFFECT FLIGHT POWER REQUIREMENTS. SKELETAL MUSCLES GENERALLY PERFORM ABOUT THE SAME AMOUNT OF WORK IN PROPORTION TO THEIR MASS. LONGER FIBRED MUSCLES, SUCH AS THE AVIAN PECTORALIS, HOWEVER, ARE WELL SUITED TO PRODUCING THE LARGER MOVEMENTS REQUIRED FOR MOVING THE WINGS TO PRODUCE EFFECTIVE AERODYNAMIC POWER FOR WEIGHT SUPPORT AND TO OVERCOME DRAG.

14. …… THE INTRINSIC WING MUSCLES OF BIRDS ARE COMMONLY SHORT FIBRED AND PINNATE, AND HAVE LONG TENDONS. THIS ENABLES THESE MUSCLES TO CONTROL DISTAL MOVEMENTS OF THE WING WHILE, AT THE SAME TIME, BEING SMALL AND LIGHTWEIGHT. OUR BONES HOLD US UP, OUR MUSCLES MOVE US AND THE NERVES TELL THE MUSCLES TO MOVE THE BONES. OUR BONES ARE HELD TOGETHER BY LIGAMENTS AND THE BONES ARE MOVED BY MUSCLES. TENDONS CONNECT MUSCLES TO BONES

15. MAJOR BLOOD VESSELS(BLOOD CIRCLE)

16. BLOOD VESSELS AND THEIR FUNCTIONS PULMONARY REFERS TO CIRCULATION THAT’S CARRYINGS OXYGEN POOR BLOOD FROM THE RIGHT VENTRICLE TO THE LUNGS. CORONARY ARTERIES BLOOD VESSELS THAT SUPPLY BLOOD CARRYING OXYGEN AND NUTRIENTS TO THE MYOCARDIUM OF THE HEART. PULMONARY VEIN THE VEIN THAT CARRIES BLOOD FROM THE LUNGS TO THE HEART. IT IS THE ONLY VEIN THAT CARRIES OXYGENATED BLOOD. HEPATIC VEIN THE VEIN THAT CARRIES BLOOD AWAY (DRAINS) FROM THE LIVER

17. CONT…. CAROTID ARTERY REFERRING TO THE COMMON CAROTID ARTERY SUPPLIES BLOOD TO THE HEAD AND FACE. PULMONARY ARTERY THE BLOOD VESSEL THAT CARRIES BLOOD FROM THE FROM THE RIGHT VENTRICLE TO THE LUNGS. IT IS THE ONLY ARTERY THAT CARRIES DEOXYGENATED BLOOD. CAPILLARIES THE SMALLEST (MICROSCOPIC) OF BLOOD VESSELS (ONE CELL LAYER THICK) THAT ARE THE SITE OF GAS, NUTRIENT, AND WASTE EXCHANGE BETWEEN CELLS AND THE BLOOD. THEY ALSO CONNECT ARTERIOLES TO VENULES. INTERNAL CAROTID ARTERY ARTERY THAT SUPPLIES BLOOD TO THE BRAIN. INFERIOR VENA CAVA CARRIES (DRAINS) BLOOD FROM THE LOWER LIMBS OF THE BODY AND EMPTIES IN THE RIGHT ATRIUM.

18. BLOOD VESSELS IN THE HEART

19. …… SUBCLAVIAN ARTERY BOTH A LEFT AND RIGHT, BLOOD VESSELS THAT SUPPLY BLOOD TO THE SHOULDERS AND UPPER LIMBS. LEFT ATRIUM CHAMBER THAT RECEIVES OXYGENATED BLOOD FROM THE PULMONARY VEINS AND PUMPS IT INTO SYSTEMIC CIRCULATION. SUPERIOR VENA CAVA CARRIES (DRAINS) BLOOD FROM THE HEAD, NECK, AND UPPER LIMBS AND EMPTIES IN THE RIGHT ATRIUM. MESENTERIC (SUPERIOR / INFERIOR) ARTERIES ORIGINATE ON THE AORTA; SUPERIOR UNDER RENAL ARTERY, INFERIOR UNDER GONADAL ARTERY

20. NAMES OF GROUP MEMBERS: A MAIKETSO : MF MOGATOE : O MARUMO : O MOGOROSI : I TOUTE : M DITSE : AM MATABANE : G TSHABALALA : KK MATHEPA : B GCILITSHANA