1. Observing and Measuring Communication Variables W. Robert Sampson, Ph.D. Professor of Communication Communication & Journalism Research Methods Communication & Journalism Research Methods

2. Observing and Measuring Communication Variables W. Robert Sampson, Ph.D. Professor of Communication Conceptual and Operational Definitions Communication & Journalism Research Methods Communication & Journalism Research Methods

3. W. Robert Sampson Observing and Measuring Communication Research Methods Concrete vs. Abstract Concrete terms are specific, they give us a clear mental image of what is being described Concrete terms are specific, they give us a clear mental image of what is being described Abstract terms are more general, they use a broader level of categorization which gives us less specific information. Abstract terms are more general, they use a broader level of categorization which gives us less specific information.

4. W. Robert Sampson Observing and Measuring Communication Research Methods Concrete vs. Abstract “Animal” “Animal” “Mammal” “Mammal” “Canine” “Canine” “Dog” “Dog” “German Shepherd” “German Shepherd” “Rin Tin Tin” “Rin Tin Tin” “ Program” “TV Program” “WB Program” “New WB Program” “Summerland” “Last night’s episode of “Summerland”

5. W. Robert Sampson Observing and Measuring Communication Research Methods Concrete vs. Abstract Complaint Complaint Customer complaint Customer complaint Customer complaint about slow service Customer complaint about slow service Customer complaint about slow service during shift change Customer complaint about slow service during shift change Viewer feedback Viewer complaint Viewer complaint about TV news show

6. W. Robert Sampson Observing and Measuring Communication Research Methods Conceptual Definition Describes what a term means by relating it to other abstract concepts Describes what a term means by relating it to other abstract concepts Dictionary definitions tend to be conceptual definitions—that is, dictionaries define terms by listing words which are synonyms. Dictionary definitions tend to be conceptual definitions—that is, dictionaries define terms by listing words which are synonyms.

7. W. Robert Sampson Observing and Measuring Communication Research Methods Operational Definition Describes a concept in terms of its observable or measurable characteristics or behaviors, by specifying how the concept may be observed in actual practice. Describes a concept in terms of its observable or measurable characteristics or behaviors, by specifying how the concept may be observed in actual practice.

8. W. Robert Sampson Observing and Measuring Communication Research Methods Operational Definitions Which would be easiest to operationalize? Concise news reporting Concise news reporting Positive and negative feedback to a speech Positive and negative feedback to a speech Effective teaching Effective teaching Good student Good student Public service announcements (broadcast) Public service announcements (broadcast) Viewer dissatisfaction (television) Viewer dissatisfaction (television) Company image (PR) Company image (PR) Truth in advertising Truth in advertising

9. W. Robert Sampson Observing and Measuring Communication Research Methods Is the definition adequate? Is the definition adequate? Does it provide a complete description Does it provide a complete description Of all important aspects? Of all important aspects? Is the definition accurate? Is the definition accurate? Is it a valid and universally agreed upon way of viewing a variable? Is it a valid and universally agreed upon way of viewing a variable? Is the definition clear? Is the definition clear? Are the terms clear to the majority of report readers and future researchers? Are the terms clear to the majority of report readers and future researchers? Evaluating Operational Definitions

10. W. Robert Sampson Observing and Measuring Communication Research Methods Operational Definitions In your group, write OD’s for any two: Concise news reporting Concise news reporting Positive and negative feedback to a speech Positive and negative feedback to a speech Effective teaching Effective teaching Good student Good student Public service announcements (broadcast) Public service announcements (broadcast) Viewer dissatisfaction (television) Viewer dissatisfaction (television) Company image (PR) Company image (PR) Truth in advertising Truth in advertising

11. Observing and Measuring Communication Variables W. Robert Sampson, Ph.D. Professor of Communication Communication & Journalism Research Methods Communication & Journalism Research Methods Measurement Theory

12. W. Robert Sampson Observing and Measuring Communication Research Methods Measurement is… …the process of determining the existence, characteristics, size, and/or quantity of changes or differences in a variable through systematic recording and organization of the researcher’s observations. …the process of determining the existence, characteristics, size, and/or quantity of changes or differences in a variable through systematic recording and organization of the researcher’s observations.

13. W. Robert Sampson Observing and Measuring Communication Research Methods Increasingly precise… …measurement and statistical analysis of behavior are relatively recent developments, pioneered in the 19 th century and refined in the 20 th …. …measurement and statistical analysis of behavior are relatively recent developments, pioneered in the 19 th century and refined in the 20 th ….

14. W. Robert Sampson Observing and Measuring Communication Research Methods Quantitative measurements … employ meaningful numerical indicators to ascertain the relative amount of something, whereas… … employ meaningful numerical indicators to ascertain the relative amount of something, whereas…

15. W. Robert Sampson Observing and Measuring Communication Research Methods Qualitative measurements … employ symbols (words, diagrams, and nonmeaningful numbers) to indicate the meanings (other than relative amounts) people have of something. … employ symbols (words, diagrams, and nonmeaningful numbers) to indicate the meanings (other than relative amounts) people have of something.

16. W. Robert Sampson Observing and Measuring Communication Research Methods Quantitative & Qualitative … measurements provide researchers with different but potentially complementary ways of measuring operationally defined concepts…. … measurements provide researchers with different but potentially complementary ways of measuring operationally defined concepts….

17. W. Robert Sampson Observing and Measuring Communication Research Methods Count Count Viewers Viewers Subscribers/Readers Subscribers/Readers Awards Awards Sales Sales Profits Profits Employee turnover Employee turnover Workplace accidents Workplace accidents Interview Viewers Subscribers/Readers Awards Sales Profits Employee turnover Workplace accidents Quantitative & Qualitative

18. W. Robert Sampson Observing and Measuring Communication Research Methods May involve simple counting or use of an instrument/form May involve simple counting or use of an instrument/form May be May be Observational Observational Self-report Self-report Objective data Objective data Expert estimates Expert estimates Interview Focus group Open-ended questionnaire Critical incident Observation Records Critical analysis of texts Quantitative & Qualitative

19. W. Robert Sampson Observing and Measuring Communication Research Methods Triangulation Studying something in multiple ways is called “Triangulation.” Studying something in multiple ways is called “Triangulation.”

20. W. Robert Sampson Observing and Measuring Communication Research Methods Methodological triangulation Methodological triangulation Data triangulation Data triangulation Researcher triangulation Researcher triangulation Theoretical triangulation Theoretical triangulation 4 Types of Triangulation

21. Observing and Measuring Communication Variables W. Robert Sampson, Ph.D. Professor of Communication Communication & Journalism Research Methods Measurement Theory: Levels of Measurement

22. W. Robert Sampson Observing and Measuring Communication Research Methods Levels of Measurement Data may be Nominal Nominal Ordinal Ordinal Interval Interval Ratio Ratio

23. W. Robert Sampson Observing and Measuring Communication Research Methods Nominal Scales …classify variable into at least two different categories …classify variable into at least two different categories A thing either fits or does not fit that category (Is it warm or cold today?) A thing either fits or does not fit that category (Is it warm or cold today?) Categories must be Categories must be Mutually exclusive Mutually exclusive Equivalent Equivalent Exhaustive Exhaustive

24. W. Robert Sampson Observing and Measuring Communication Research Methods Nominal Scales Examples Examples Telephone numbers Telephone numbers Zip Codes Zip Codes Street Addresses Street Addresses Office numbers Office numbers Freshperson, Sophomore, Junior, Senior Freshperson, Sophomore, Junior, Senior Gender: Male Female Gender: Male Female Course Numbers (Course Level) Course Numbers (Course Level)

25. W. Robert Sampson Observing and Measuring Communication Research Methods Nominal Scales There is NO mathematical relationship among the items on a nominal scale. There is NO mathematical relationship among the items on a nominal scale. Thus, a higher telephone number is no greater than a lower telephone number, and Thus, a higher telephone number is no greater than a lower telephone number, and it makes no sense at all to determine the average telephone number, zip code, address, or even course number. it makes no sense at all to determine the average telephone number, zip code, address, or even course number.

26. W. Robert Sampson Observing and Measuring Communication Research Methods Ordinal Scales Not only classify a variable into nominal categories, but also rank order those categories along some dimension. Not only classify a variable into nominal categories, but also rank order those categories along some dimension.

27. W. Robert Sampson Observing and Measuring Communication Research Methods Ordinal Scales Not only classify a variable into nominal categories, but also rank order those categories along some dimension Not only classify a variable into nominal categories, but also rank order those categories along some dimension Is it warmer or colder than usual today? Is it warmer or colder than usual today? Joan ranked 35 th in a graduating class of 110. Joan ranked 35 th in a graduating class of 110.

28. W. Robert Sampson Observing and Measuring Communication Research Methods Ordinal Scales Results of a sailboat race Results of a sailboat race 1 st place: 1 hr., 15 minutes 1 st place: 1 hr., 15 minutes 2 nd place: 1 hr., 17 minutes 2 nd place: 1 hr., 17 minutes 3 rd place: 1 hr., 29 minutes 3 rd place: 1 hr., 29 minutes 4 th place: 2 hr., 18 minutes 4 th place: 2 hr., 18 minutes

29. W. Robert Sampson Observing and Measuring Communication Research Methods Ordinal Scales With an ordinal scale, the numbers represent rank (numerical sequence) With an ordinal scale, the numbers represent rank (numerical sequence) But intervals are not equal But intervals are not equal So it does not make sense to calculate averages, etc. So it does not make sense to calculate averages, etc.

30. W. Robert Sampson Observing and Measuring Communication Research Methods Interval Scales Not only classify a variable and rank order it along some dimension, but also establish equal distances between each of the adjacent points along the measurement scale. Not only classify a variable and rank order it along some dimension, but also establish equal distances between each of the adjacent points along the measurement scale.

31. W. Robert Sampson Observing and Measuring Communication Research Methods Interval Scales Is it warmer or colder than usual today? Is it warmer or colder than usual today? Much Somewhat Neither Somewhat Much Warmer Warmer Warmer nor Colder Colder Colder Much Somewhat Neither Somewhat Much Warmer Warmer Warmer nor Colder Colder Colder  How warm is it today?  50 51 52 53 etc.

32. W. Robert Sampson Observing and Measuring Communication Research Methods Interval Scales Likert and Likert-type scales Likert and Likert-type scales Strongly Agree Neither Agree DisagreeStrongly Strongly Agree Neither Agree DisagreeStrongly Agree nor disagreeDisagree Agree nor disagreeDisagree Strongly agree __ __ __ __ __ Strongly Disagree Strongly agree __ __ __ __ __ Strongly Disagree

33. W. Robert Sampson Observing and Measuring Communication Research Methods Interval Scales Semantic differential Semantic differential Pleasant __:__:__:__:__:__:__ Unpleasant Pleasant __:__:__:__:__:__:__ Unpleasant Friendly __:__:__:__:__:__:__ Unfriendly Friendly __:__:__:__:__:__:__ Unfriendly Rejecting __:__:__:__:__:__:__ Accepting Rejecting __:__:__:__:__:__:__ Accepting Tense __:__:__:__:__:__:__ Relaxed Distant __:__:__:__:__:__:__ Close Cold __:__:__:__:__:__:__ Warm Supportive __:__:__:__:__:__:__ Hostile Tense __:__:__:__:__:__:__ Relaxed Distant __:__:__:__:__:__:__ Close Cold __:__:__:__:__:__:__ Warm Supportive __:__:__:__:__:__:__ Hostile

34. W. Robert Sampson Observing and Measuring Communication Research Methods Ratio Scales Not only categorize and rank order a variable along a scale with equal intervals, but also establish an absolute zero point. Not only categorize and rank order a variable along a scale with equal intervals, but also establish an absolute zero point. Zero points—Age, Weight, Distance, etc. Zero points—Age, Weight, Distance, etc.

35. W. Robert Sampson Observing and Measuring Communication Research Methods Choosing Measurement Scales Is order important? Are data ranked? NO Nominal Is spacing constant? (equal interval) NO Ordinal Does the data end at zero? NO Interval Ratio YES

36. W. Robert Sampson Observing and Measuring Communication Research Methods Assigned Yesterday—for Friday Chapter Two plus notes Design your research question (see p. 39) Design your research question (see p. 39) Generate at least four researchable hypotheses Generate at least four researchable hypotheses Be able to describe/classify these hypotheses Be able to describe/classify these hypotheses Chapter Three (start on p. 69) Craft a tentative title for your study Craft a tentative title for your study Be able to explain the importance of your research question and hypotheses Be able to explain the importance of your research question and hypotheses Identify potential sources Identify potential sources

37. W. Robert Sampson Observing and Measuring Communication Research Methods Added Today—For Friday Chapter Four Have first draft of “operational definition” for each variable Have first draft of “operational definition” for each variable And have preliminary thoughts on how to measure each. And have preliminary thoughts on how to measure each.

38. W. Robert Sampson Observing and Measuring Communication Research Methods Also Craft a tentative title for your study Craft a tentative title for your study Be able to explain the importance of your research question and hypotheses Be able to explain the importance of your research question and hypotheses Identify potential sources Identify potential sources