1. Tropical Soundings

2. Stratocumulus Regime
Extremely shallow moist layer and extreme capping; no mechanism to remove the cap; large scale subsidence strengthens the cap

3. Trade Wind Regime
Moist layer a little deeper, but very dry aloft; no mechanism to remove the cap.

4. Indo/Pacific Warm Pool
Marginally conditionally unstable through depth of troposphere. LCL low. Warm moist sfc air can get above LCL and have slight buoyancy to great heights, deep clouds, but relatively weak updrafts.

5. Indo/Pacific Warm Pool
Marginally conditionally unstable through depth of troposphere. LCL low. Warm moist sfc air can get above LCL and have slight buoyancy to great heights, deep clouds, but relatively weak updrafts.
Can’t generate large buoyancy

6. West African Squall Line
No cap whatsoever. Very unstable all levels. LCL and LFC are elevated because air dry at lower levels. Once air gets above LFC, it can have very large buoyancy, strong updrafts, graupel, hail, lightning.

7. West African Squall Line
No cap whatsoever. Very unstable all levels. LCL and LFC are elevated because air dry at lower levels. Once air gets above LFC, it can have very large buoyancy, strong updrafts, graupel, hail, lightning.
Can generate huge buoyancy

8. Jordan’s (1958) mean sounding for the West Indies
West Pacific
Similar to
Plot from Montgomery et al. 2006

9. Hurricane Erin (2001)
Halverson et al.

10. Hurricane Soundings and Jordan Sounding
Sheets 1969

11. “Hot Tower” Hypothesis
Riehl & Malkus 1958

12. Tornado Soundings

13. Oklahoma Severe Thunderstorm
Extremely CU both above and below the cap. Cap is not so extreme that it can’t be removed by trough or front. Moderately moist aloft, so easily saturated.

14. Average Oklahoma Tornado Sounding
Fawbush and Miller 1951

15. Development of an Oklahoma Tornado Sounding
Cools
Warms
Lifting removes the negative area
Moist Adiabat
Newton 1963