1. The Development of Children, Seventh Edition
Cynthia Lightfoot,
Michael Cole,
and Sheila R. Cole
Chapter 3:
Prenatal Development
and Birth

2. Chapter Overview The Periods of Prenatal Development
Maternal Conditions and Prenatal Development
Teratogens: Environmental Sources of Birth Defects
Birth
The Newborn’s Condition
Beginning the Parent-Child Relationship

3. I. The Period of Prenatal Development
Prenatal Development is divided into three broad periods:
Germinal Period
Embryonic Period
Fetal Period

4. Germinal Period Begins at conception
Lasts until the zygote enters the uterus and becomes implanted (8 to 10 days after conception)
Organism has grown from a single cell to hundreds of cells

5. Embryonic Period Begins at implantation
Lasts until the end of the 8th week
All major organs have taken primitive shape
Sexual differentiation has begun
The placenta allows the exchange of nutrients and waste products between the mother and the embryo.

6. Fetal Period Begins at the 9th week Lasts until birth
The fetus dramatically grows in weight and length.
The brain and all organ systems increase in complexity.
By 15 weeks the fetus exhibits all movements observable at birth.

7. Fetal Period Basic sensory capacities developing
Example: sensing motion, light, sound
Environmental influences from outside and inside the mother can affect fetal development.
Example: mother’s diet and illnesses

8. I. Apply – Connect – Discuss
After reviewing the distinction between continuity and discontinuity presented in Chapter 1, discuss the ways in which prenatal development and activity are both continuous and discontinuous.

9. II. Maternal Conditions and Prenatal Development
Two environmental conditions affecting prenatal development:
Mother’s attitude towards her pregnancy or stress during the pregnancy
Mother’s nutrition

10. Maternal Attitudes and Stress
A mother’s attitude towards a pregnancy
Effects of a negative attitude
Low birth weight
Longer-term developmental risks
A mother’s stress
Immediate effects of elevated levels of the hormone cortisol

11. Influences of Mother’s Nutrition
A mother’s nutrition is an important factor in fetal development.
Recommended food intake:
consume enough calories in a well-balanced diet
increase intake of folic acid, calcium, and iron.

12. Influences of Mother’s Nutrition
Effects of extreme undernourishment, and malnutrition
Low birth weight, premature birth, abnormalities, and death
Effects of lesser degrees of poor nutrition
Increase risk, although effects can be difficult to isolate

13. Influences of Mother’s Nutrition
Effects of overnutrition
Overweight in babies
Later health risks
Obesity
Diaetes

14. II. Apply – Connect – Discuss
Along with the famine in Leningrad during WWII, the famous Dutch famine of 1944 has provided a wealth of information for scientists interested in the effects of fetal malnourishment on subsequent development.
Conduct some online research and explore some of the projects associated with the Dutch Famine Birth Cohort Study.
What are some of the questions currently addressed by the study?
What are some of the most recent findings?

15. III. Teratogens: Environmental Sources of Birth Defects
Environmental agents that can cause deviations from normal development and can lead to abnormalities or death.

16. Teratogens Six general principles apply to all teratogens:
The susceptibility of the organism depends on its developmental stage.
A teratogen’s effects are likely to be specific to a particular organ.
Individual organisms vary in their susceptibility to teratogens.
The mother’s physiological state influences susceptibility to teratogens.
The greater the concentration of a teratogenic agent, the greater the risk.
Teratogens that have little or no effect on the mother can seriously affect the developing organism

17. Teratogens Common Teratogens: Drugs
Including prescription drugs, caffeine, tobacco, alcohol, marijuana, cocaine, methamphetamine, heroin, and methadone
Infections and other health conditions
Including rubella and HIV
Radiation or pollution at high levels

18. III Apply – Connect – Discuss
Visit the Web site of the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. Explore their “One Test. Two Lives.” initiative.
What is the goal of the initiative?
How does the CDC hope to implement the initiative?
What materials and tools have they developed to move the initiative forward?

19. IV. Birth The Stages of Labor
Normally begins approximately 266 days after conception
Proceeds through three stages
Uterine contractions cause the cervix to dilate
The baby is pushed through birth canal
The baby is delivered and the afterbirth is delivered

20. Birth: Cultural Variations
Childbirth Experiences:
Be assisted by a physician or midwife in a hospital
Be assisted by a midwife and/or others at home
Unassisted birth
Kung, Bajura(Nepal)
Relatively rare

21. Childbirth in the United States
99% of babies are born in hospitals
Most concerns centered around:
How to safely deal with pain
Medication
Precautions to ensure the health of both mother and baby
Medical interventions
Alternative Approaches

22. The Baby’s Experience of Birth
A stressful experience
Surge of stress hormones
May contribute to initiating birth
Necessary for lungs to function properly
Increase metabolic rate
Induces state of alertness

23. IV. Apply – Connect – Discuss
When it comes to prenatal care, labor, delivery, and newborn care, technologically advanced societies rely heavily on medical science.
How would you characterize the culture of medical science (you may want to review the definition of culture presented in Chapter 2)?
What are some of the costs and benefits of medical science for pregnant women and newborns?

24. V. The Newborn’s Condition
Assessing the Baby’s Vitality
The Apgar Scale
Physical condition
Brazelton Neonatal Assessment Scale
Behavioral condition
Primary Goal:
Screening for infants at risk
Secondary Goal:
Predict aspects of future development

25. Physical Condition The Apgar Scale Assesses physical condition
Factors rated:
Heart rate
Respiratory effort
Muscle tone
Reflex responsivity
Color
A low score requires immediate medical attention

26. Behavioral Condition Brazelton Neonatal Assessment Scale
Assesses subtle behavioral aspects of newborn’s condition
Includes tests of:
Reflexes
Motor capacities
Muscle tone
Responsiveness to objects and people
Control of own behavior

27. Problems and Complications
Prematurity
Birth before the 37th week
Immature lungs, digestive, or immune systems
Low Birth Weight
Below 5 pounds, 8 ounces (2500 grams)
Intrauterine growth restrictions

28. V. Apply – Connect – Discuss
Low birth weight is one of the leading causes of infant mortality. According to Dr. Alan Braunn, a professor of pediatrics at Emory University, birth weight is an important indicator of a community’s overall health status. In particular, Dr. Braunn argues that low birth weight signals an unhealthy community. In recent years, many Southern states have seen a shocking rise in the number of infant deaths.

29. V. Apply – Connect – Discuss
Have birth weights and infant deaths in your community/state/province/nation changed in recent years?
How does your community/state/province/nation compare to others on measures of infant birth weight and mortality?
What community/state/province/national efforts are underway to increase birth weight and/or decrease infant death?

30. VI. Beginning the Parent-Child Relationship
The Baby’s Appearance
Can significantly influence the parents’ response to the baby
Example: “babyness” (“cuteness”)

31. Social Expectations
Parental expectations, influenced by the culture, influence the child’s environment in ways that shape the child’s development
Example: the baby’s sex

32. VI. Apply – Connect – Discuss
Provide some examples of how the relationship between the newborn’s characteristics and the care he or she receives is mediated by cultural beliefs and values (see Chapter 2).