1. NK cells Interferons J. Ochotná

2. NK cells Part of antigen non-specific mechanisms (innate)
They do not have antigen-specific receptors
Recognize cells that have abnormally low
MHCgpI (some tumor and virus infected cells)
They are able to kill quickly - without prior stimulation, proliferation and differentiation
Activators of NK cells - IFNa, IFNb

3. Receptors of NK cells
Activating receptors - Some surface lectins, Fc receptor CD16 ADCC (antibody-dependent cellular cytotoxicity) NK cells recognize cell opsonized IgG antibody through the Fc receptor CD16, this leads to the activation of cytotoxic mechanisms (NK degranulation)
Inhibitory receptors - Signals provided through these receptors inhibit the cytotoxic mechanisms
Imunoglobulin family - KIR (killer
inhibitor receptors)
C type lektin family - eg CD94/NKG2

4. Cytotoxic mechanisms of NK cells
The resulting reaction of NK cell after meeting with another cell depends on which signal prevail, whether activating or inhibitory signals
Cytotoxic granules contain perforin and granzyme (perforin creates pores in the cytoplasmic membrane of target cells, in some cases may cause osmotic lysis of the target cell, formed pores in the cell receiving granzymes, that cause the target cell to die by apoptosis.
Fas ligand (FasL) - which binds to the apoptotic receptor Fas (CD95) presented on the surface of many different cells
TNFa

7. Interferons
Belongs to the humoral component of non-specific mechanisms
IFNa - produced by virus infected lymphocytes, monocytes and macrophages
IFNb - produced by virus-infected fibroblasts and epithelial cells
IFNa and IFNb - bind to receptors on the surface of infected and healthy cells and induce in them an antiviral state (synthesis of enzymes that block viral replication in the cell)
IFNg - produced by TH1 cells, has regulatory function, activates macrophages and stimulates the expression of MHCgp

8. Basophils and mast cells and their importance in immune responses

9. Mast cells
Mucosal mast cells - in the mucous membranes of respiratory and gastrointestinal tract, produce histamine, serotonin, heparin, tryptase, leukotriene C4 ..., participate in parasitosis and allergy
Connective tissue mast cells - the connective tissue, producing tryptase, chymase, prostaglandinD2 ..., are multiplicated in fibrosis, in parasitosis and allergy are not participating

10. Functions of the mast cells
Defense against parasitic infections
In pathological circumstances, responsible for the early type of hypersensitivity (immunopathological reaction typeI)
Regulation of immune response
Apply during inflammation, in angiogenesis, in tissue remodeling
Involved in the maintenance of physiological functions of mucosal
Contribute to the normal metabolism of connective tissue
Communication between the immune and nervous system

11. Activatio schema of the mast cell
Mast cells can be stimulated to degranulate by direct injury (opioids, alcohols, and certain antibiotics), cross-linking of IgE Fc receptors, or by anafylatoxins (C3a, C5a)
Establishing of multivalent antigen (multicellular parasite) to highaffinnity Fc receptor for IgE (FcRI)
Aggregation of several molecules FcRI
Initiate mast cell degranulation (cytoplasmic granules mergers with the surface membrane and release their contents)
Activation of arachidonic acid metabolism (leukotriene C4, prostaglandin D2)
Start of production of cytokines (TNF, TGF, IL-4, 5,6 ...)
After binding C3a or C5a to its receptor on mast cell (activate degranulation independent on IgE)

12. Activation schema of mast cell

13. Secretory products of mast cells
Cytoplasmatic granules: hydrolytic enzymes, proteoglycans (heparin, chondroitin sulphate), biogenic amines (histamine, serotonin) Histamine causes vasodilation, increased vascular permeability, erythema, edema, itching, contraction of bronchial smooth muscle, increases intestinal peristalsis, increased mucus secretion of mucosal glands in the respiratory tract and GIT (helps eliminate the parasite)
Arachidonic acid metabolites (leukotriene C4, prostaglandin D2)
Cytokines (TNF, TGF , IL-4, 5,6 ...)

14. The role of mast cells in development of allergy

15. Basophils Differentiate from myeloid precursor
They are considered to be the circulating form of mast
Receptor equipment, containing granules, the mechanisms of stimulation and functions are very similar to mast cells
They are responsible for the emergence of anaphylactic shock

16. HLA system (MHC glycoproteins)

17. MHC glycoproteins class I (Major histocompatibility complex)
The function of MHCgpI is presentation of peptide fragments from inside the cell (which are produced by cell, including viral peptides if are present)on the cell surface so as to be recognized by T lymphocytes (cytotoxic CD8)
Present on all nuclear cells of the organism
3 isotype classical human MHC gp. (HLA - A,-B,-C)
3 isotype-classical MHC gp. (HLA - E,-F,-G; molecule CD1)

18. Structure of MHC gp I
MHC gp class I consists of transmembrane chain a and non-covalently associated B2mikrotubulin
a chain has 3 domains, 2 N-terminal (a1, a2 - binding site for peptides) and 1 C-terminal domain (a3 - anchored in the cytoplasmic membrane, a structure similar to imunoglobulin domain)
Binding site for the peptide is structurally eminent groove whose bottom is made up of b structure and sides are bounded by 2 a helix
Binding of peptide is necessary for a stable conformation of MHCgp and thus ensure its long presentation on the cell surface

19. Binding of peptides to MHCgpI
MHC gp I bind peptides with a length of 8 to 10 aminoacides
Certain MHC gp molecule binds peptides sharing common structural features - coupling motif (critical are aminoacides near the end of peptide)
The binding of endogenous peptides occurs in the endoplasmic reticulum during biosynthesis of MHC gp
After a string a and b2mikrotubulin create in the ER, folding into the correct conformation and the mutual association and the association of an appropriate peptide, the complex is further processed in the Golgi apparatus and then is presented on the cell surface
Linked peptides derived from proteins degraded proteasome, which cleaves cytoplasmic proteins for destruction (labeled with ubiquitin), peptide fragments are transported into the ER by specific membrane pump

20. Non-classical MHC gp I HLA - E,-F,-G; CD1 molecules
Structurally similar to classical MHC gp
Are less polymorphic
There are only on some cells
They specialize in binding of specific ligands

21. HLA-E and HLA-G - occurs on the trophoblast cells
Complexes of HLA-E and HLA-G with peptides are recognized by inhibiting receptors of NK cells and contribute to the tolerance of the fetus in utero
CD1 molecules - bind glycolipids or other highly hydrophobic compounds, these complexes are recognized by specialized ab T lymphocytes (NK-T lymphocytes)

22. MHC glycoproteins class II
The function of MHC gpII is the presentation of peptide fragments from protein whitch are ingested by cell on the cell surface so as to be recognized by T lymphocytes (auxiliary CD4)
Occur on the APC (dendritic cells, monocytes, macrophages, B lymphocytes)
3 isotypes of MHC gpII (DR, DQ, DP)

23. Structure of MHC gp II
MHC gp II consist of 2 non-covalently associated transmembrane subunits a and b
The peptide binding site consists of N-terminal domains a1 and b1
Binding of peptide is necessary for a stable MHC gp conformation and thus ensure its long presentation on the cell surface

24. Binding of peptides to MHC gp II
MHC gpII bind peptides with a length of 15 to 35 aminoacides (but possibly longer - because the peptide binding site is open at both ends)
Certain MHC gp molecule binds peptides sharing common structural features - coupling motif
After a string a and b are created in ER, fold into the correct conformation and the mutual associated are connected with another transmembrane chain called invariant chain, which blocks the binding site for the peptide, this complex is further processed in the Golgi apparatus, secretory vesicles isolated from GA merge with endosomes, then split the invariant chain and peptide fragments from cell absorbed proteins bind into binding site of MHC gp and the complex is then presented on cell surface

25. Diagram of the biosynthesis of complex MHC gpII with peptides from ingested protein

26. Polymorphism of MHC glycoproteins
HLA complex is located on chromosome 6
For MHC gp is typical high polymorphism, there are up to hundreds of different forms of alelic isotypes (except the non-classical MHC gp, and DR a chain)
Codominant inheritance of alelic forms (Individual has 3 cell surface isotypes of HLA molecules (HLA-A,-B,-C) mostly in 2 different alelic forms)
Polymorphism has a protective significance at individual and population level
Ppolymorphism MHC gp causes complications in transplantation

27. HLA typing = determmination of HLA antigens on the surface of lymphocytes Carry out during the testing before transplantation and in determination of paternity
1) Serotyping
Microlymfocytotoxic test
Allospecific serums (obtained from multiple natal to 6 weeks after birth, obtained by vaccination of volunteers, or commercially prepared sets of typing serums (monoclonal antibodies))
Principle - the incubation of lymphocytes with typing serums in the presence of rabbit complement, then is added the vital dye which stained dead cells
- cells carrying a specific HLA are killed by cytotoxic Ab against the Ag, the percentage of dead cells is a measure of serum toxicity (forces and antileukocyte antibody titre)
Positive reaction is considered more than 10% dead cells (serological typing can be done also by flow cytometry

28. 2) Molecular genetic methods
For typing are used hypervariable sections in the II. exon genes coding for HLA class II; to determine HLA class I is used polymorphism in II. and III. exon coding genes 2a) PCR-SSP = Polymerase chain reaction with sequential specific primers
Extracted DNA is used as a substrate in a set of PCR reactions
Each PCR reaction contains primers pair specific for a certain allele (or group of alleles)
Positive and negative reactions are evaluated by electrophoresis, each combination of alleles has a specific electrophoretic painting

29. 2b) PCR-SSO
PCR reaction with sequence-specific oligonucleotides Multiplication of hypervariable sections of genes coding HLA
Hybridization with enzyme or radiolabeled DNA probes specific for individual alleles 2c) PCR-SBT
Sequencing based typing
The most accurate method of HLA typing
We get the exact sequence of nucleotides, which compares with a database of known sequences of HLA alleles

30. Immunoglobulins

31. Structure of immunoglobulins
2 heavy (H) chains covalently linked by disulfide bonds, each H chain is connected to a light (L) chain by disulfide bonds
H chain consists of 4 to 5 domains (1 variable, 3-4 constant)
L chain consists of 2 immunoglobulin domains (1 variable, 1 constant)
Types of L chains - k, l
Types of H chains - m, d, g (g1-4) and (a1, a2), e

32. Variable domains of L and H chain form the binding site for Ag
Hinge region where the heavy chain linked by disulfide bonds
Immunoglobulins are glykoproteins (glycosilated Fc part)
J chain
Secretory component

34. Antibody cleavage by papain Antibody cleavage by pepsin

35. Functions of immunoglobulines
Neutralization of Ag
Agglutinate Ag
Complement activation (IgM, IgG)
Opsonization (IgA, IgG, IgE)
Activation of mast cells using IgE
ADCC

36. Classes of immunoglobulins and their functions
Distinguished by the constant part of H chain to IgM, IgD, IgG (IgG1 - IgG4), IgA (IgA1, IgA2), IgE
IgM - as a monomer form BCR secreted as pentamer (10 binding sites) first isotype that forms after the meeting with Ag neutralization of Ag, activates complement, do not bind to Fc receptors on phagocytes (concentration of 0.9 to 2.5 g / l; biol. half-life days)
IgD - monomer form a BCR in serum is in a very low concentration        - (0.1 g / l; biol. half-life 3 days)

37. IgG - isotypes IgG1-IgG4 different ability of complement activation and binding to Fc receptors of phagocytes (opsonization)        - function: neutralization, opsonization, complement activation        - passes the placenta (passive imunization from the mother)        - formed in secondary immune response (concentration of 8 to 18 g / l; biol. half-life of days)

38. IgA - mucosal IgA - protection of mucous membranes, neutralization, opsonization, do not activate complement dimer, the secretory component saliva, tears, breast milk serum IgA - monomer, dimer or trimer (Concentration of 0.9 to 3.5 g / l; biol. half-life of 6 days)
IgE - applies in defense against multicellular parasites is the main cause of allergic reactions       - (concentration of 3x10-4 g / l; biol. half-life 2 days)

40. The genetic basis for the development of immunoglobulin

41. The genetic basis for the development of immunoglobulin
Gene segments for H chains – on chromosome 14 V (variable) - Several hundred D (Diversity) - about 50 J (joining)- 9 C constant domains of H chain
Gene segments for L chains - k on chromosome 2                                          l on chromosome 22 V (variable) J (joining) C constant domain of L chain
At the ends of V, D, J segments that are signal sequences which are recognized enzyme VDJ recombinase that carry out the rearrangement of these genes
On the sides of C segments are so-called switch sequences, which are recognized by enzyme recombinase that carry out isotype switching

42. The rearrangement of genes coding H chain
1) DJ rearrangement - excision a section IgH between D and J segment (runs on both chromosomes)
2) VD rearrangement - excision section between some V segment and DJ, if is rearrangement on some chromosome successfull, stops the regrouping on the second chromosome – it is called allelic exclusion (this is also true for L chain)
Transcript of rearranged IgH gene into mRNA , splicing of the primary transcript. The first form H chain m.    If rearrangement is unsuccessful, B lymphocyte die.

43. The rearrangement of genes coding L chain
1) First, rearrange the genes encoding the L chain k, there is excision of sections between a V and J segment (simultaneously on both chromosomes), if the rearrangement is successful on one chromosomes, regrouping on the second chromosome stops – it is called allelic exclusion. 2) If regrouping of the k genes is unsuccessful, start the regrouping genes l. 3) Not all H and L chain can form together a stable dimmers. If regrouping unsuccessful, B lymphocyte die.

44. Variability of immunoglobulins
Variability of immunoglobulins is determined by: 1) Diversity of the combination V(D) J segments 2) Connecting variability - after excision of gene sequences the end are not cut off exactly 3) The enzyme terminal transferase - prolonge cut off ends with the short random sequences 4) Somatic mutations of V segments of the rearranged genes after contact with Ag on the surface of FDC

45. Isotype (class) switching
Occurs during the terminal differentiation of B lymphocyte after activation with Ag on the surface of FDC (require costimulating signal through CD40)
Enzymes recombinases recognize the switch sequences located on the sides of C segments (this sequence is not between Cm and Cd segments - B cell can produce before isotype class switching IgM and IgD simultaneously) and excise gene segments  
After elimination of the C domain part is transcribed into mRNA that segment, which is the closest to VDJ segment and after splicing and translation arise corresponding isotype of the H chain

46. Isotype switching

47. Isotype switching
Cytokines regulate what isotype occurs: IL-4 stimulates switching to IgG1 and IgE, IgG4 TGFb stimulates switching to IgG2 and IgA
Regulation, whether it will be secreted or membrane form is at the level of mRNA (at 3´end of C segment are after the sequences encoding secreted form a sequences of membrane-form)

48. Anti-idiotypic antibodies
IDIOTYP = summary of identical binding structures for Ag on antibodies the same specificity
Idiotypic structures of 1st generation antibodies can be recognized by some B lymphocytes as antigens and can form against them anti-idiotypic antibodies (2nd generation antibodies; some binding sites may remind Ag, which caused formation of 1st generation antibodies)
Against the 2nd generation antibodies formate 3rd generation antibodies (anti-antiidiotypic antibodies)
The idiotypic network may play a role in regulation of antibody response

49. B lymphocytes

50. B-lymphocytes
B-lymphocytes (B cells) are cells responsible especially for specific, antibody-mediated immune response. They also have great importance for the immune memory (which is used for vaccination).
B-cells recognize native antigen through BCR (B cell receptor)
B-lymphocyte whitch bind Ag through BCR are stimulated to proliferate and differentiate to effector plasma cells which produce large quantities of antibodies of the same specificity as the BCR (it is actually the same protein in soluble form). Part of stimulated B-cells differentiate to memory cells.

51. Surface characteristics of B lymphocytes
CD 10 - immature B lymphocyte
CD 19 - characteristic surface sign of B cells
CD 20 - on the surface of Ig-positive B lymphocytes
IgM, IgD - BCR
MHC gp II - Ag presenting molecules
CD 40 – costimulating receptor

52. Development of B lymphocytes
Development of B lymphocytes takes place in the bone marrow and completes after activation with Ag in secondary lymphoid organs. Pluripotent hematopoietic stem cell Progenitor B cell - begin recombination processes which lead to a large number of clones B lymphocytes with individual specific BCR Pre - B cell - expression of pre-B receptor (composed of H (m) chain and alternate L chain) Immature - B lymphocyte - expression of surface IgM (BCR) at this stage elimination of autoreactive clones Mature B lymphocyte - expression of surface IgM and IgD (BCR)

53. Critical moments in the development of B lymphocytes
Completion of the rearrangment of genes for H chain and surface expression of pre-BCR
Successful rearrangement of genes for L chain and surface expression of IgM (BCR)
Testing of immature B cells, whether they are autoreactive
Another critical stage are somatic mutations and affinity maturation, when survive only B cells with the highest affinity for antigen.

54. BCR
BCR is composed from surface immunoglobulin (IgM, IgD - H chains are transmembrane, recognizes Ag) and associated signaling molecules (Iga and IGb), which are associated with the cytoplasmic protein-tyrosine kinases (PTK) Src Group
After binding of Ag to 2 or more BCR will approximate PTK, mutual phosphorylation and phosphorylation of other cytoplasmic proteins, leading to changes in gene transcription, proliferation, differentiation and secretion of antibodies
The signal by binding Ag to the BCR can be amplified by cooperation with CR2, which binds C3dg (opsonin)

55. Elimination of autoreactive B lymphocytes
By random rearrangement of genes, connecting inaccuracy, H-L pairing and somatic mutations may also arise clones of B cells bearing autoreactive receptors and produce autoreactive antibodies.
Majority of autoreactive B lymphocytes are eliminated as the immature B lymphocytes in the bone marrow, if its BCR bind autoantigen with sufficient affinity, receives a signal leading to apoptotic death (clonal deletion).
If some of the autoreactive clones pass this elimination, their autoreaktivity usually do not come because lack of TH lymphocytes for their activation, many autoantigens are cryptic, or occur in low concentrations and are ignored by the immune system. Tolerance to self-antigens is critical in preventing autoimmunity in the organism.

56. Recognition of Ag by B cell in secondary lymphoid organs

57. Ontogenesis of antibodies
Synthesis of specific antibodies begins around the week of gestation, the total concentration of IgA and IgM remains undetectable until birth, IgG begin to form after birth
B lymphocytes respond to immunization predominantly by IgM formation, switching to other isotype is slower
Slow growth of own IgG decline in maternal IgG (about 3. to 6.month)

58. The concentration of IgM reaches values comparable to adults in the 1- 3 year of life, IgG and Ig A between year
Antibody response to polysaccharide antigens appears until around 2. year of life
In old age is a lower antibody response to new stimuli and increased production of autoantibodies