1. Europe after World War I
As we have learned in previous chapters difficulties faced the United States after World War I
Economic problems, social change, and the threat of communism helped produce a Red Scare—a fear of aliens and radicals
Europe faced even more challenges at the end of the war
The war had caused the deaths of millions and the destruction of numerous cities and farms
The European economy was in ruins
It would take years to recover

2. Problems with Peace
The Treaty of Versailles, which had brought the war to an end, left many European nations dissatisfied
France in particular had hoped to use the peace settlement to severely weaken Germany
They felt the treaty was not harsh enough on the Germans
Italy was also unhappy with the treaty
The Italians had been on the winning side in the war
They had hoped to be rewarded with territory as part of the treaty
Instead, they were largely ignored during the peace talks

3. German Outrage
Germany suffered the most as a result of the Treaty of Versailles
Its terms did serious damage to the German economy
It also left the German people—and the German military—feeling humiliated
This helped usher in a period of political upheaval

4. German Outrage
The treaty forced Germany to give up control of some of its land, including major industrial regions
The treaty also required Germany to make heavy reparation payments to other countries
In the early 1920s, these factors helped bring about a period of severe inflation, or rising prices
Prices for goods increased at an incredible rate
By 1923 German currency had simply ceased to have any meaningful value
For millions of Germans, a lifetime’s worth of hard work and savings had vanished

5. Weimar Republic
Germany also experienced political turmoil after the war
Communists and Socialists tried to take control of Germany in and early 1919
This effort failed, and Germany soon established a democratic system of government led by less radical elements
This government was known as the Weimar Republic, after the German city where it was established

6. Weimar Republic
The Weimar Republic, however, was not a very strong government
It faced opposition from the political far left—Communists— and from the far right, which was antidemocratic
Another problem was unhappiness in the German military
It had been greatly reduced in size and power as part of the Treaty of Versailles
These factors helped make the Weimar Republic weak and unstable

7. Totalitarian Leaders Arise
European struggles and dissatisfaction during the postwar years had a major effect on European politics
In some countries, a certain type of leader emerged—one who reflected and expressed the people’s bitterness and anger
These leaders promised a return to greatness for their nations
This vision was so appealing to their unhappy people that many were willing to give up basic freedoms in return for the hope of future glory

8. Mussolini and the Birth of Fascism
The first of these new leaders to emerge in Europe was the Italian Benito Mussolini
He had begun his public life in the early 1900s as a member of a Socialist party in Italy
Unlike many of his fellow Socialists, he supported Italy’s entry into World War I
By the war’s end, Mussolini had moved to the far right of Italian politics
He strongly opposed socialism and communism

9. Mussolini and the Birth of Fascism
Outraged by the Treaty of Versailles, Mussolini founded a new Italian political party—the National Fascist Party
The term fascist comes from a Latin word for “a bundle of rods tied together”
The ancient Romans had used this bundle as a symbol of their state
The single rod, Roman thinking went, could be easily broken
When tied together with other rods, it was strong

10. Mussolini and the Birth of Fascism
For Mussolini, fascism was a system of government that stressed the glory of the state
He summed up the principle of fascism with the slogan, “Everything in the State, nothing outside of the State, nothing against the State”
The rights and concerns of individuals were of little importance

11. Mussolini and the Birth of Fascism
After World War I, Mussolini used his dynamic public speaking skill to win a seat in Italy’s parliament
His vision of a strong, orderly Italy appealed to many people
He also encouraged the use of violence against Communists and Socialists, whom many Italians blamed for the disorder of postwar Italy
By these means, Mussolini gained wide support
In 1922 he became leader of the government

12. Totalitarian Dictator
Once in power, Mussolini established a dictatorship— government by a leader or group that holds unchallenged power and authority
He allowed no other political parties and ruthlessly crushed opponents
His government controlled newspapers, schools, and businesses
All power flowed through the man Italians referred to al Il Duce—“the leader”
Under this totalitarian regime, Mussolini had total control over daily life in Italy

13. Hitler’s Rise to Power
Another of Europe’s aggressive new leaders was Austrian-born Adolf Hitler, who had an unremarkable early life
An unsuccessful art student, he was rejected by the Austrian military because they thought him too weak to carry a weapon
With that start of World War I, however, Hitler volunteered for the German army
There he built a solid record as a soldier

14. Hitler’s Rise to Power
Hitler’s anger about the Treaty of Versailles led him into politics
He joined a small political party known as the National Socialists, or Nazis
The party attracted many former soldiers and others who were unhappy with conditions in Germany
It was during this time that Hitler discovered his talent for public speaking and leadership
Under his guidance, the Nazis gained influence in German politics

15. Hitler’s Rise to Power Hitler, however, was impatient for change
In 1923 he organized an effort to seize power in Germany by force
This revolt failed
As a result, Hitler was imprisoned for nine months of a five-year sentence

16. Mein Kampf
While in prison, he produced a book called Mein Kampf— German for “My Struggle”
The book outlined Hitler’s major political ideas
Like Mussolini, Hitler stressed nationalism and devotion to the state
He dreamed of uniting all the Germans of Europe in a great empire

17. Mein Kampf
In Mein Kampf, Hitler expressed a belief in the racial superiority of Germanic peoples, whom he called Aryans
In addition, he blamed Jews for many of Germany’s problems and believed that they threatened the purity of the Aryan race

18. Hitler’s Rise to Power
When he got out of prison, Hitler was determined to gain power through peaceful means
Seizing on public discontent and offering an appealing vision of German greatness, Hitler gradually built support
By 1933 the Nazis were the most powerful party in the nation
Hitler became Germany’s chancellor, a top position in the government

19. Hitler’s Rise to Power
Hitler now moved to establish himself as a totalitarian dictator
Using his political skills—and violence when necessary—he managed to eliminate his political opponents
Meanwhile, Hitler continued to spread the myth of Aryan greatness and the coming German empire
At the center of this myth was Hitler himself
As with Mussolini in Italy, Hitler the man was glorified above all other Germans

20. Hitler’s Rise to Power
Hitler also began secretly to build up the German armed forces
He knew that these would be useful to him as he sought to fulfill his goal of expanding German territory
The German people, Hitler explained, needed more “living space” in which to grow and prosper

21. Francisco Franco
Some of the same forces that helped Mussolini and Hitler gain totalitarian power also helped create powerful regimes in other countries
Spain erupted in civil war in the 1930s
Out of this conflict, Fascist general Francisco Franco came to power

22. Joseph Stalin
In the Soviet Union, communism was already established when Joseph Stalin came to power in the mid-1920s
Communism and fascism represent opposite political extremes
Yet there were similarities between the Soviet system under Stalin and the Fascist systems
Like the Fascists, Stalin violently crushed his political opponents

23. Joseph Stalin
Also like Hitler and Mussolini, Joseph Stalin created a myth of his own greatness
Throughout the Soviet Union, towns and cities were renamed for him
His portrait was displayed everywhere
Stalin’s domination of all aspects of Soviet life made him one of the era’s most notorious totalitarian dictators

24. Other Regimes: Japan
Japan was another country torn by political and economic conflict
In the early 1930s, military leaders used violence to gain control over the government
They, too, were inspired by nationalistic dreams of Japanese greatness
Such dreams would soon lead to war

25. Totalitarian Governments and Military Force
A common feature of the powerful postwar leaders was a willingness to use violence to gain power
Many were also willing to use military force against other nations

26. Japan and Manchuria
Among the problems facing Japan in the 1920s was the limited size of its territory
The islands of Japan were growing crowded
Many Japanese wanted to expand their territory and gain greater access to wealth and resources
This desire grew even stronger as a result of the worldwide economic depression of the 1930s

27. Japan and Manchuria
At this time, Japan’s government was under civilian control
Many Japanese, however, were unhappy with their leaders
Dissatisfaction was especially high among members of the military who held strong nationalist beliefs

28. Japan and Manchuria Some Japanese generals decided it was time to act
In 1931 the army invaded the Chinese province of Manchuria—without the approval of the Japanese government
The goal was to seize Manchuria’s land and resources for the use of the Japanese people
Japan’s government ordered the army to end the action
The army officers simply refused to obey the order

29. Japan and Manchuria
The takeover of Manchuria demonstrated the weakness of the Japanese government and the strength of Japan’s nationalists
Over the next several years, the military would expand its influence over the government, in part by assassinating its political enemies
In general, the Japanese public supported the increasingly powerful military
As in Germany and Italy, the Japanese people were beginning to believe in the nationalists’ dream of expansion

30. Japan and Manchuria
The League of Nations strongly criticized Japan for the invasion of Manchuria
In response, Japan simply withdrew from the League of Nations, which was unable or unwilling to take any strong action against Japan
The powerlessness of the League was clear for the world to see

31. Italy invades Ethiopia
The weakness of the League was soon confirmed by events elsewhere
In 1935 Mussolini’s Italy invaded the East African nation of Ethiopia
Italy’s history with Ethiopia was several decade old
Italian efforts to establish a colony there in the late 1800s had ended in a crushing military defeat at the hands of the Ethiopians

32. Italy invades Ethiopia
Italy did manage to keep several smaller colonies in East Africa
Some Italians, however, held on to bitter feelings toward Ethiopia for decades
Those feelings resurfaced when Mussolini came to power with grand plans to rebuild an Italian empire
In 1935 he used a dispute about the border between Ethiopia and an Italian colony as an excuse to launch an invasion

33. Italy invades Ethiopia
The Ethiopians were unable to resist the more powerful Italian forces, and Italy soon conquered the country
Ethiopian emperor Haile Selassie personally asked the League of Nations for help
Selassie’s words failed to sway the League
Again, the international community was unwilling to take a strong stand against aggression
American leaders, meanwhile, spoke out against Italy’s actions, but there was little public support for doing more
President Franklin Roosevelt was unwilling to take formal steps to punish Mussolini

34. The Spanish Civil War
Spain in the mid-1930s was troubled by fierce political conflict
On the left were Communists
On the right were Fascists and Nationalists
Most Spaniards held political views somewhere in between these extremes

35. The Spanish Civil War In 1936 this conflict led to civil war
The war soon attracted interest and involvement from many other countries in Europe and in North America
Fascist Italy and Nazi Germany sent forces and equipment to fight for the Nationalists, who were led by General Francisco Franco
Opposing the Nationalists were the so-called Republicans, who controlled the government at the start of the war
They had the support of the Soviet Union, which provided arms and equipment
In addition, volunteers from the United States and many other countries joined the fight on the Republican side

36. The Spanish Civil War
The fighting in the Spanish Civil War was bloody and brutal
Many hundreds of thousands of people died
This included several hundred American participants in the fighting
By 1939, however, Franco’s Nationalist had defeated the Republicans
Spain came under the control of a Fascist dictator

37. Hitler takes Action
As soon as Hitler gained power in Germany, he secretly began to rebuild the German military
Before long, however, he was openly stating his plan to re-arm Germany
This was in direct violation of the Treaty of Versailles
Despite this, Hitler managed to convince Great Britain and France to tolerate his actions

38. Hitler takes Action
In 1935 the British agreed to allow Germany to rebuild its naval forces, including submarines
Hitler claimed that he was building German military strength in order to resist the spread of communism
This was a goal the British supported
In fact, he was already committed to using war to expand his nation

39. Militarizing the Rhineland
Under the Treaty of Versailles, Germany was required to keep its troops out of an area in the Rhine River valley along the French border
This was meant to protect France against possible German aggression
In 1936, however, Hitler violated the treaty by sending German troops into the Rhineland
As an excuse, Hitler claimed that a recent French military agreement with the Soviet Union threatened Germany

40. Militarizing the Rhineland
France was greatly alarmed by the German action
It was unwilling, however, to take military action against Germany
Britain, for its part, had no interest in going to war over the matter
Germany’s troops remained in the Rhineland, and Hitler grew bolder

41. The Anschluss
Two years later, Hitler took action to gain control of neighboring Austria
Hitler was an Austrian by birth
He had long dreamed of uniting all ethnic Germans, including the Austrians
In 1938 he tried to force the Austrian government to agree to Anschluss—union with Germany
When the Austrian government refused, Hitler sent troops into the country

42. The Anschluss The Anschluss was popular among the people of Austria
It was, however, another German violation of the Treaty of Versailles
Germany’s neighbors issued strongly worded protests
But they did nothing more to stop Hitler

43. The Sudetenland
By now, Hitler was confident that no one would act to stop him
Soon after the Anschluss, he began plans to gain control of a German-speaking portion of Czechoslovakia called the Sudetenland
First, he encouraged Germans in the Sudetenland to protest against Czechoslovakian rule
Then he began threatening a military attack

44. The Munich Conference
Hoping to end the crisis, British Prime minister Neville Chamberlain and French premier Edouard Daladier met with Hitler
As in the past, the British and French seemed most interested in avoiding armed conflict
At a meeting in Munich, Chamberlain and Daladier agreed to allow Hitler to annex the Sudetenland—that is, make it part of Germany
Czechoslovakia, which had no representative at the Munich meeting, protested the agreement
Chamberlain, however, boasted of having achieved “peace for our time”
In reality, the world was on the verge of war