1. Copyright © 2017, 2013 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved
Child Development
A Cultural Approach
Chapter 5
Toddlerhood
Copyright © 2017, 2013 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved

2. Learning Objectives (1 of 6)
5.1 Describe the typical changes in physical growth that take place in toddlerhood and explain the harmful effects of nutritional deficiencies on growth. 5.2 Describe the changes in brain development that take place during toddlerhood, and identify the two most common methods of measuring brain activity. 5.3 Describe the advances in motor development that take place during toddlerhood.

3. Learning Objectives (2 of 6)
5.4 Compare and contrast the process and timing of toilet training in developed countries and traditional cultures. 5.5 Distinguish the weaning process early in infancy from weaning later in toddlerhood. 5.6 Outline the cognitive achievements of toddlerhood in Piaget’s theory. 5.7 Explain Vygotsky’s sociocultural theory of cognitive development and contrast it with Piaget’s theory.

4. Learning Objectives (3 of 6)
5.8 Summarize the evidence for the biological and evolutionary bases of language. 5.9 Describe the milestones in language development that take place during the toddler years Identify how parents’ stimulation of toddlers’ language varies across cultures and evaluate how these variations relate to language development.

5. Learning Objectives (4 of 6)
5.11 Describe how emotional development advances during toddlerhood and identify the impact of culture on these changes Describe the changes in self-development that take place during toddlerhood Distinguish between sex and gender and summarize the evidence for the biological basis of gender development Identify the four classifications of attachment according to the Strange Situation.

6. Learning Objectives (5 of 6)
5.15 Identify the key factors influencing the quality of toddlers’ attachment to their mothers, and explain what effect attachment quality has on development Compare and contrast the typical patterns of father involvement with infants and toddlers in traditional cultures and developed countries Describe relationships with siblings, peers, and friends during toddlerhood.

7. Learning Objectives (6 of 6)
5.18 Identify the options for the care of toddlers and the effects of childcare on toddlers 5.19 Identify the characteristics of autism spectrum disorder (ASD) and recognize how autism affects prospects for children as they grow to adulthood Identify the typical rates of television use in toddlerhood and explain some consequences of toddlers’ TV watching.

8. Physical Development

9. Bodily Growth Children lose baby fat and become leaner
About 6 months of age solid food could become part of diet
Deficiencies can occur
Kwashiorkor: protein deficiency
Micronutrient deficiency: lack of crucial vitamins and minerals
Be more specific with the malnutrition and some physical development.

10. Figure 5.1 Growth Chart from Birth Through Age 5
Be more specific with the malnutrition and some physical development.
Growth slows from infancy to toddlerhood but remains rapid.

11. Brain Development (1 of 2)
Early brain development is marked by two key developments
Synaptic density – density of synaptic connections among neurons
Frontal cortex heavily impacted
Synaptic pruning – connections between neurons become fewer but more efficient
Increases efficiency by allowing unused synapses to wither away

12. Brain Development (2 of 2)
Toddlerhood marks time period during which most methods of measuring brain activity can be used
EEG (electroencephalogram) – measures electrical activity of cerebral cortex
FMRI (functional magnetic resonance imaging) – uses a magnetic field to record changes in blood flow and oxygen
Specifics on each brain measuring tool

13. Figure 5.2 Changes in Synaptic Density from Birth to Age 2
Synaptic connections increase throughout the first 2 years, with the greatest density occurring at the end of toddlerhood.

14. Gross Motor Development
11 months – walk without support
15 months – stand and begin to climb
18 months – some running
24 months – can kick with more dexterity
Developed and developing countries may show some slight age range differences but development progresses comparably
Offer more information about restrictive movements when comparing developed and developing countries

15. Table 5.1 Milestones of Gross Motor Development in Toddlerhood
Age (Months)
Milestone
9 to 16
Stand alone
9 to 17
Walk without support
11 to 19
Stand on one leg
11 to 21
Climb onto chairs, beds, up stairs, etc.
13 to 17
Walk backward
14 to 22
Run
17 to 30
Jump in place
16 to 30
Walk on tiptoes
22 to 36
Walk up and down stairs
Offer more information about restrictive movements when comparing developed and developing countries

16. Fine Motor Development
Fine motor skills are substantial and focus on smaller motor skills
At 12 months can show left or right preference for eating
Also learns to hold cup, scribble with a pencil, and turn pages of a book
Second year expands previous fine motor skills

17. Table 5.2 Milestones of Fine Motor Development in Toddlerhood
Age (Months)
Milestone
7 to 15
Hold writing instrument (e.g., pencil, crayon)
8 to 16
Coordinate actions of both hands
10 to 19
Build tower of two blocks
10 to 21
Scribble vigorously
12 to 18
Feed self with spoon
15 to 23
Build tower of three to four blocks
20 to 28
Draw straight line on paper
24 to 32
Brush teeth
26 to 34
Build tower of 8 to 10 blocks
29 to 37
Copy circle

18. Toilet Training 4 ways to identify it is time for toilet training
Staying dry for hour or two during the day
Regular bowel movements
Increased anticipation of the event
Directly asking to use the toilet or wear underwear
Give information regarding expectations and use numbered list to relate to AAP from book

19. Weaning Breast feeding for 2 to 3 years has been typical human custom
Transition from infancy to toddlerhood varies from different cultures
The Bali approach can be a mix of gentle and harsh
The Fulani people separate infants from their mothers during weaning
Highlight why the infancy and toddler distinction in weaning and why it could be gentle or harsh

20. Cognitive Development

21. Piaget’s Theory (1 of 2)
Piaget’s sensorimotor stage continues into toddlerhood
Stage 5: Tertiary Circular Reactions – Intentionally try out different behaviors
Little scientists
Stage 6: Mental Representations – Think about possibilities and select actions
Symbolic thought
Use textbook for examples or class input for ideas

22. Piaget’s Theory (2 of 2)
During toddlerhood three other Piagetian ideas become more important
Object permanence
A-not-B error
Deferred imitation
Piaget suggested 18 months but could be sooner
Categorization

23. Vygotsky’s Cultural Theory of Cognitive Development
Two influential ideas are zone of proximal development and scaffolding
Zone of proximal development (ZPD) – range of skills child can perform IF guided but can’t accomplish alone
Private speech – self-guiding and self-directing comments children make to themselves
Scaffolding – degree of assistance provided
Led to extension of theory
Guided participation – teaching interaction between two people

24. The Biological and Evolutionary Bases (1 of 2)
Many evolutionary biologists believe language developed for its social functionality
Important distinguishing feature of human language is infinite generativity – combine symbols in infinite ways
Part of the uniqueness is infinite generativity. Use Washoe as comparison to explain concept

25. The Biological and Evolutionary Bases (2 of 2)
Biologically humans are built for uniqueness in language
Unique vocal apparatus
Broca’s and Wernicke’s area
Genes
Evolutionary advantage to our predecessors
Children learn basic rules of grammar at about the same age
Chomsky proposed a language acquisition device (LAD)
Use figure to highlight Broca’s and Wernicke’s area.
Mention the evolutionary advantage and comparison to Australopithecus

26. Figure 5.3 Brain Lobes Showing Broca’s Area and Wernicke’s Area
Use figure to highlight Broca’s and Wernicke’s area.
Mention the evolutionary advantage and comparison to Australopithecus

27. Language Development: Milestones (1 of 3)
Begins slowly then starts to rise sharply during toddlerhood
First 50 words or so part of toddler routine
12 to 18 months called the slow expansion
Holophrases
Overextensions
Underextensions
Define holophrase with example in class
Define overextension with example
Define underextension with example

28. Language Development: Milestones (2 of 3)
During naming explosion pace of learning new words doubles
Begin to see the processes of:
Fast mapping – learning and remembering a word for an object after just one time of being told what object is
Telegraphic speech – two-word phrases that strip away connecting words
Use figure to give examples of fast mapping and telegraphic speech

29. Language Development: Milestones (3 of 3)
During third year toddler becomes more adept at language
Diminished frequency of overextension and underextension
Show understanding of rules of language
May show over regularization – over applying of grammatical rules
Chance for examples in class and from text

30. Learning Language in a Social and Cultural Context
In US and developing countries parents read and explain word meaning.
Parents in majority cultures read more than parents in minority cultures
Some research suggests social class differences
High-income word comparison
Correlated positively with early milestones

31. Figure 5.4 Toddlers’ Vocabulary by Income Group
Cumulative vocabulary by income group in the first 3 years of life

32. Emotional and Social Development

33. Emotional Development in Toddlerhood
Emotional self-regulation advances in 4 ways
Behavioral development
Use of language
Social demands (external requirements)
Development of sociomoral emotions
“Terrible twos” still occur possibly due to increased sense of self
Utilize text for each of the four ways emotional regulation develops

34. Toddlers’ Emotions (1 of 2)
Primary emotions develop in infancy
Toddlerhood is when social emotions develop
Known as sociomoral emotions
Empathy is an extremely important sociomoral emotion
Ability to understand and respond helpfully to another person’s distress
Prosocial behavior
Behavior intended to help or benefit others
Define secondary emotions and discuss development of empathy. Mention cultural differences

35. Toddlers’ Emotions (2 of 2)
Cultural differences in expression of emotions
In Western countries pride is viewed as a positive
In non-Western countries pride is seen as a danger
Define secondary emotions and discuss development of empathy. Mention cultural differences

36. The Birth of the Self
This is the stage of life when a distinct sense of self first develops
Self-awareness reflects an understanding of the distinction between self and the external world
Self-recognition – recognizing image of self
Self-reflection – think about themselves as they would think about others

37. Gender Identity (1 of 3)
Children begin to identify as male or female during toddlerhood
Sex – biological status of being male or female
Gender – cultural categories of male and female
Culture communicates gender expectations to boys and girls

38. Gender Identity (2 of 3) Researchers Sidorowicz & Lunney (1980)
Male child – 50% men, 80% women chose to play with the child with the football
Female child – 89% men, 73% women chose the doll
Parents have early influence in conveying gender messages
Toys represent underlying cultural beliefs

39. Gender Identity (3 of 3)
Three elements to biological basis of gender development
Evolutionary – gender differences based on characteristics promoting survival
Males – aggressive, competitive, dominance
Females – nurturing, cooperative, emotionally responsive
Ethology – animal behavior shows evidence of biology
Hormonal – hormonal balance differences

40. Varieties of Attachment: The Strange Situation (1 of 3)
Mary Ainsworth devised a procedure to evoke attachment behavior
The Strange Situation devised to assess attachment by going through 8 vignettes
Led to the development of four attachment classifications
Explain the situations in detail

41. Varieties of Attachment: The Strange Situation (2 of 3)
Secure attachment – mother is secure base, cry upon separation, return to mother upon return
Insecure–avoidant attachment – no interaction with mother, no response upon separation or return

42. Varieties of Attachment: The Strange Situation (3 of 3)
Insecure–resistant attachment – less likely to return, show distress upon separation, show ambivalence upon return
Disorganized–disoriented – extremely unusual behavior, dazed when mother leaves and fear upon return

43. Figure 5.5 The Strange Situation
The Strange Situation features a series of episodes in which (a) the mother leaves the room, (b) the toddler is alone with the stranger, and (c) the mother returns to the room and is reunited with the toddler. The eight episodes are designed to measure stranger anxiety, secure base behavior, and emotional attachment to the caregiver. Each episode lasts approximately 3 minutes.

44. Attachment Quality and Later Development
Attachment theory suggests quality influenced by
Maternal sensitivity – what a child needs at any given time
Maternal responsiveness – quick to assist or soothe when needed
Bowlby suggested that “internal working model of attachment” can apply to later relationships
Research is mixed but the disorganized attachment does seem to be predictive of later problems

45. Critiques of Attachment Theory
Child effect critique
Children are born with different temperaments
Influence is bidirectional
Cultural critique
Attachments are recognizable across cultures
May vary on parenting style
May vary on classifying insecurely attached infants

46. Figure 5.6 Cultural Variations in the Strange Situation
Across cultures, most toddlers exhibit secure attachment in response to the Strange Situation. In this study toddlers in Japan were more likely to be classified as insecure–resistant and less likely to be classified as insecure–avoidant than toddlers in other countries.

47. The Role of Fathers (1 of 2)
In China the traditional role of the father is provider and disciplinarian
Latin America – provider and also warm and affectionate
Some cultures in Africa have a tradition of polygyny
The Manu are involved after toddlerhood

48. The Role of Fathers (2 of 2)
Fathers in developed countries also seen as providers and interact less
Change to more egalitarian in recent years
Parenting learned, not innate

49. Siblings: Younger and Older (1 of 2)
In traditional cultures older siblings may be responsible for the care of the younger sibling
In developed countries, toddlers also show attachment to older siblings
Older sibling can provide emotional comfort and security if primary not around

50. Siblings: Younger and Older (2 of 2)
Younger siblings can lead to negative consequences including attachment changes, increased aggressiveness
Parents can help but conflict is more common in siblings than any other relationship

51. Peers Peer interaction can be understood by types of play
Solitary play – all by themselves
Parallel play – same activity but not with each other
Simple social play – talking, smiling, sharing

52. Child Care Toddlers in day care exhibit social play sooner
Friendships can develop as in later ages: companionship, mutual affection, and emotional closeness

53. Autism: A Disruption in Social Development (1 of 2)
Features for diagnosis include
Lack of interest in social relations
Abnormal language development
Repetitive behaviors

54. Autism: A Disruption in Social Development (2 of 2)
1:68 in U.S. fit criteria for autism spectrum disorder, children affected by autism
Origins are unclear
Although diagnosed between 18 to 30 months, it can be seen in infancy
May never develop language
As adults can live with parents or in sponsored group homes

55. Media Use in Toddlerhood
58% of children under 3 watch TV everyday
Toddlers understand images are not real although it is not completely clear
Can encourage pro-social behavior
Displacement effect is a concern
It is suggested that children watch no more than 2 hours of television per day
Explain displacement effect