1. Russian Federation

2. I. Authoritarian Oligarchy or Budding Democracy
Between global politics defined by competition between the USA and USSR
Collapse of Soviet Union in 1991 left the Russian Federation as the largest piece of territory remaining from the USSR, its population was cut in half, but it still remained the largest country in the world in terms of geographic size
Boris Yeltsin became 1st president of the Russian Federation, he initiated “Shock Therapy” reforms
Democracy
Free Market Economy

3. Oligarchy vs. Democracy Continued
Oligarchy – a small group of Yeltsin’s family members and personal advisors took control of government and granted themselves favors inviting political and economic corruption
Vladimir Putin replaced Yeltsin in 1999 and has attempted to contain the oligarchies influence in some aspects of government
Centralization of Power in President
Movement towards authoritarian rule
Unpredictability of Russia (No experience with democracy and free market economy)
Slavic roots provide strong tendency to autocratic rule

4. II. Sovereignty, Authority, and Power
Most of 20th century authority in Soviet Russia came from the Politburo of the Communist Party
Politburo – small group of men who climbed the ranks of the party through the nomenklatura system (patron-client system).
Nomenklatura – ordered path from local party soviets to the “commanding heights” of leadership
Patron-client networks---an informal system of policymaking in which a powerful patron offers resources in return for support of lesser clients
When the Soviet Union dissolved the authority and power of the Politburo dissolved with it.

5. III. Legitimacy
Political legitimacy for Russia is currently very low, partly because changes are a drastic departure from the past
Recent evidence that country began to stabilize under Putin.
Putin has used authoritarian strategies to solidify Russia’s weak, illiberal democracy.
Historically Russia’s political legitimacy has been based on strong, centralized, autocratic rule
Tsars
Communist rule propagated by Marxism-Leninism
Democratic-Centralism: rule by a few for the benefit of the many
Stalinism changed the regime to totalitarianism
Constitution of 1993 – provided for a strong president, although power of the president can technically be checked by popular elections and the Duma

6. IV. Historical Influences on Politics
Absolute, Centralized Rule
Extensive Cultural Heterogeneity – ethnic diversity and numerous “republics” and “autonomous regions” reflected in name “Russian Federation”
Slavophile vs. Westernizer
Revolutions of 20th Century

7. V. Political Culture Characteristics Geographic Setting
Eastern Orthodoxy
Equality of Result
Hostile toward Government
Importance of Nationality

8. Geographic Setting Geographic Setting Largest country in world
Contains 11 time zones
Majority of country is north of 49th degree latitude (U.S. – Canada border), which means it is mostly frozen
Abundance of Natural Resources that exist in inhospitable or inaccessible geographic locations

9. Eastern Orthodoxy Eastern Orthodoxy
Early in their history Russians established ties with Constantinople and adopted Eastern Orthodox Christianity as their religion
This meant that they did not share the values of the Renaissance, Reformation, Scientific Revolution and Enlightenment
Russians came to value a strong state to protect them from geographic vulnerabilities instead of individualism
Russian statism existed in contrast to Western “civil society”
Eastern Orthodoxy also linked with the state, separation of church and state therefore did not exist in Russia
Russia developed a sense of global mission linked to there self-proclaimed title as the “Bastions of Eastern Christianity”. This sense of global mission would be promoted by the Soviet Union in their spread and preservation of communism (the Third International)

10. Equality of Result Equality of Result
Communist regime instilled a value of equality in the Russian people already strong in a country of peasants with similar living standards
Egalitarianism has survived the fall of the Soviet Union
Most Russians resent differences of wealth or income
Equality of Result vs. Equality of Opportunity
Russian political culture is not particularly conducive to the development of capitalism

11. VI. Political & Economic Change
Long period of Autocratic rule by Tsars – ruled Russia from the 14th century to the early 20th. Control of Russia passed down through the Romanov family from the 17th century on, but transitions were often accompanied by brutality and assassinations
20th century rule by Communist Party – began in when Lenin’s Bolsheviks seized control of the government after the last tsar, Nicholas II, was deposed. The regime toppled in when a failed coup from within the government created chaos
Regime change to Democracy and Free Markets in – President Boris Yeltsin put western-style reforms in place to help create the Russian Federation

12. Early Tsarist Rule
First tsars were princes of Moscow who cooperated with Mongol rulers in the 13th century
After Mongol empire weakened the princes named themselves “tsars” in the tradition of the “Caesars” of ancient Rome
Autocratic from the beginning to protect themselves against invasion and attack
Tsars served as official head of Eastern Orthodox Church, they were seen as political and religious leaders

13. “Western” Tsars Peter the Great
Ruled in late 17th and early 18th century
Introduced western technology and culture to Russia
First tsar to travel to Germany, Holland, & England
Brought engineers, carpenters, and architects to Russia
Set Russia on course to becoming a world power
Catherine the Great
Originally from Germany
Ruled during the late 18th century
Russia gained warm water access to the Black Sea under her reign
“Enlightened Despot” – interested and read Enlightenment ideas, she ruled absolutely but with the good of the people in mind
Tsars after Peter and Catherine alternated between emphasizing Slavic roots and tolerating western reforms

14. 19th Century Russia invaded by Napoleon in 1812
Alexander I resists invasion and ultimately drives French out of Russia
Russian intellectuals influenced by Western thought grew weary of tsarist absolutism and revolted: Decembrist Revolt of 1825
Revolt crushed by Nicholas I
Crimean War – Russia defeated by UK, France, and Ottoman Empire. Defeat was a significant blow for confidence in tsarist leadership among Russians
Tsars used secret police for investigations, as well as exiling and execution of dissenters in 19th century
Alexander II only 19th century tsar to embrace reforms, however he was assassinated in 1881.
He freed Russian serfs
Set up regional zemstvas (assemblies)
Alexander III reacted to assassination by undoing reforms and intensifying efforts of secret police.

15. Revolution of 1917
Causes
Russia’s defeat in Russo-Japanese War ( )
Ineffectiveness in World War I
Riots first break out in 1905 after Russians defeated by Japanese
Revolts were suppressed but state collapsed in amidst World War I
Russian soldiers were fighting without guns and shoes, military defections from the war helped send the state into chaos

16. Lenin and the Bolsheviks
Mensheviks – Russian Marxists who believed that socialist revolutions would first take place in industrialized countries such as Germany and England, Russians would have to wait to modernize
Vladimir Lenin – communist who disagreed with Mensheviks, he argued for democratic-centralism, or a “vanguard” leadership group to lead the revolution in the name of the people
Bolsheviks – followers of Lenin, practice Marxism- Leninism, took control of Russian government in late (October Revolution).

17. Lenin & Bolsheviks continued
Brest-Litovsk Treaty – negotiated between Bolsheviks and Germans to end Russian involvement in WWI. Russians ceded a third of their arable land to the Germans under the Treaty
In 1918 civil war broke out in Russia between the White Army, led by Russian military leaders and backed by the Allies, and the Red Army led by Lenin and the Bolsheviks. Red Army victorious.
New Economic Policy (NEP) – instituted by Lenin in following civil war, allowed for a great deal of private ownership to exist under a centralized leadership
Lenin dies in 1924, after brief struggle for power amongst Bolsheviks he is succeeded by Josef Stalin, “Man of Steel”

18. Command and Market Economies
Factories, Farms and shops are controlled by the state
Production decisions made by the state
State decides what to sell
Prices for basic goods are subsidized by the state and kept low
Unemployment is considered unacceptable
Factories, Farms and shops privately owned
Most production decisions are made by individuals
People are responsible for finding their jobs
Producers sell what they think people will buy
Prices are set by producers, what the market will bear
Some unemployment is considered acceptable

19. Stalinism Stalin places Communist Party (CPSU) at center of control
Leaders identified through nomenklatura – process of selecting individuals from lower levels within party (Kept a file for anybody who was somebody)
Central Committee: group of 300 party leaders who were the top government officials
Politburo: “heart and soul” of Communist Party, group of 12 men from the Central Committee who ran the country, all government agencies and departments were at their disposal and carried out their decisions
General Secretary: head of the Politburo, “dictator” of the country (Stalin was General Secretary from 1927–1953)

20. Party Structure under Communism
Regional and Local party structure (cells)

21. Stalinism II Collectivization & Industrialization
Replaced the NEP with “collective farms”
Private land ownership abolished, kulaks forced to move to cities or labor camps
Five-Year Plans: ambitious goals for production of heavy industry such as oil, steel, and electricity. Labor and factories fueled by agricultural surplus produced from the farms
Gosplan: Central State Planning Commission, in charge of Five-Year Plans, became the center for the economy, determined production and distribution of virtually all goods in Soviet Union
Stalinism – the two-pronged program of collectivization and industrialization, carried out by central planning, executed with force and brutality

22. Stalin’s Foreign Policy
Primary concern internal development, foreign policy was meant to support this
Stalin advocated “socialism in one country”
Signed Non-Aggression Pact with Nazi Germany in 1939
After Nazis invade Soviet Union in 1940, Stalin joins the Allies to fight Germans in World War II
Red Army drives Nazis out of Soviet Union and back to Berlin where the Germans are defeated in 1945.
Red Army occupies majority of Eastern Europe during this time period
Tensions between Soviets and the West, particularly the United States, become a growing foreign policy concern for Stalin
Cold War

23. The Purges Execution of millions of Soviet citizens
As many as one million communist party members executed
Stalin obsessed with disloyalty within the party
Generals, Central Committee members, and Politburo officials purged as a result of Stalin’s paranoia

24. Khrushchev
Follows Stalin as General Secretary after brief power struggle in CPSU
1956, gives “secret speech” (based on letter written by Lenin) denouncing Stalinism, initiates reforms that lead to “DeStalinization” process in Soviet Union
Diplomatic and military failure of the Cuban Missile Crisis leads to his downfall and removal as General Secretary

25. Khrushchev’s Reforms Loosen government censorship of press
Decentralization of economic decision- making
Restructuring of collective farms
“Peaceful Coexistence” foreign policy in Cold War diplomacy with U.S. (Cuban Missile Crisis threatens this initiative)

26. Brezhnev
Eventually succeeds Khrushchev as General Secretary of CPSU and head of state of the Soviet Union
Hard-line, conservative member of Communist party
Ends reforms initiated by Khrushchev
“Détente” is dominant foreign policy in Cold War diplomacy with U.S., this ends with the Soviet invasion of Afghanistan ordered by Brezhnev in 1979

27. Gorbachev Takes over as General Secretary in the mid-1980’s
Leads a younger generation of communists
Educated and more “westernized” then previous Soviet leaders
Initiates a wave of reforms that included:
Glasnost
Perestroika
Demokratizatsiia

28. Glasnost – “Openness”
Open discussion of political, social, and economic issues
Allowed for open criticism of government and government policies
Gorbachev stressed that the ultimate test of the party lay in improving the economic well-being of the country and it’s people
Open market relations
Pragmatic economic policy
Less secretive government

29. Perestroika – “Restructuring”
Loosened controls of the Communist Party, allowing group formation in other sectors of society
Economic Restructuring
Modernization from within
Transfer economic power from central government to private hands and market economy
Authorization of privately owned companies
Penalties for under-performing state factories
Price reforms
Encouragement of joint ventures with foreign companies
Leasing of farm land outside the collective farms

30. Demokratizatsiia
Gorbachev wanted to insert some democratic characteristics into the old Soviet structure
However, he did want to maintain Communist Party control
Reforms included:
A new Congress of People’s Deputies with directly elected representatives
New position of “President” that was selected by the Congress
Deputies were often critical of Gorbachev
Increasing levels of displeasure with government from both liberal and conservative members of Communist Party

31. Boris Yeltsin
Former member of Politburo, removed because his radical views offended conservatives
Even more extreme than Gorbachev
Elected president of Russian Republic as result of voting procedures put in place by Gorbachev
Emerged as president of the largest republic, Russian Federation, after Soviet Union dissolves
Attempts to create a “western-style” democracy
“Shock Therapy” economic reforms (Immediate market economy)
Russian economy does not respond to “shock therapy” reforms
Conflict erupts between Yeltsin and the Duma

32. Shock Therapy
Even well established market economies need strong state institutions (ironic)
Russia lacked
1. effective tax collection: the government can’t acquire revenues needed to pay its own bills and provide services
2. regulatory functions: no rules regarding how the banks operated or labor standards
Also, no federal system of government
Increased power of oligarchs (Russian capitalists) who held a tremendous amount of power and wealth
Rise of mafia

33. Yeltsin II Poor president Hires and fires numerous prime ministers
Alcoholic & frequently ill; this leads to erratic political behavior
Resigns before the elections
Vladimir Putin, Yeltsin’s prime minister, takes over and wins the 2000 & elections

34. Без перевода

35. VII. Citizens, Society, and the State
Nationality
Most important single cleavage in Russia
80% of population is Russian
Others include:
Tatars
Ukrainians
Armenians
Chuvashes
Bashkis
Belorussians
Moldavians

36. Nationality continued
Nationality cleavages determine the organization of the country into “federations”, “autonomous regions”, republics, and provinces
Many ethnic groups would like to have their independence, but are enticed by trade benefits with the Russian government to stay in the Federation
Chechnya is the one exception

37. Chechnya Primarily Muslim region of Russia
Contains some valuable resources, such as oil fields
Independence movement is strong, and Russian government has struggled to keep Chechnya region within its control
Chechens have reverted to terrorist tactics including taking over a heavily attended Russian theater and in 2004 the seizure of a school that resulted in the deaths of over 350 people, mostly children

38. VII. Citizens, Society, and the State continued
Religion
Russian Orthodox under the tsars
All religion prohibited during the Soviet Unions rule
Boris Yeltsin encouraged Russian Orthodox Church to reestablish itself to signal a break from communism and a reflection of old Russian nationalism
Other religions represented in very small percentages (Roman Catholic, Jews, Muslims, Protestants)

39. VII. Citizens, Society, and the State continued
Social Class
Russian society much more egalitarian than western societies with a few notable exceptions
Nomenklatura: only about 7% of the citizenry were CPSU members, and all political leaders were chosen from this group. However within this group egalitarian measures were followed, and little significance was given to economic and social background
Business Oligarchy: emerged during Yeltsin’s regime, often former KGB and CPSU leaders, granted favors by Yeltsin government to promote business. Struggled in late 1990’s but have emerged as leaders in Russia after acquiring major corporations, ie. Media Most & Yukos Oil. Putin had to arrest or send into exile CEO’s of these companies for refusing to pay or underpaying government taxes

40. Rural vs. Urban Life
73% of all Russians live in urban settings, usually in the western part of the country
Economic divide between rural and urban residents is wide, however, all Russians have been hit hard by recent economic woes of the post-Cold War Russia
Urban residents tend to be more educated and in touch with western culture

41. Beliefs and Attitudes
Mistrust of Government – result of treatment and government secrecy during tsarist and Soviet regimes
Statism – despite mistrust of government, Russian citizens still expect the state to take active role in their lives
Economic Beliefs – nearly all groups and political factions favor market reforms, although not all do so enthusiastically
Westernization - “Slavophile vs. Westernizer” – some political parties emphasize nationalism, Russian interests, and Slavic culture; others emphasize reform, and integration of Russia into world economy and global trade

42. Political Participation
During Soviet rule political participation was forced, and therefore was close to 100%
Gorbachev’s reforms created competitive elections in the Soviet Union that followed through to the Russian Federation
In 1991 voter turnout in the Russian Federation was higher than the U.S.
Political participation for the Duma elections of 1993 was only 50.3%, but this followed a failed attempt by the Duma to take over the country
Presidential voter turnout has declined from 75% in 1991 elections to less than 65% for the 2004 elections
Lack of participation may be due to Russia’s underdeveloped civil society
Only 1% of Russia’s citizens report being a member of a political party
Few Russians are members of clubs, churches, or cultural groups