1. Heat Transfer

2. Heat transfer and its applications.
Practically all the operations carried out by chemical involve the production or absorption of energy in the form of heat .
The laws governing the transfer of heat and the type of apparatus that have for their main object the control of heat flow are therefore of great importance.
Examples are ubiquitous:
heat flows in the body
home heating/cooling systems
refrigerators, ovens, other appliances
automobiles, power plants, the sun, etc.

3. Heat
A form of energy associated with the motion of atoms or molecules.
Transferred from higher temperature objects to objects at a lower temperature.

4. Work done by falling weights = mgh
The calorie had been defined as the amount of heat it takes to raise the temperature of 1 gram of water by 1 degree C.
James Prescott Joule use his device below to find out how much work you would have to do to create a calorie of heat.
Work done by falling weights = mgh
The Mechanical Equivalent of Heat was found to be 4.2 Joules of mechanical work per calorie of heat produced
4.2 J/cal

5. SAT2: How much will the water’s temperature go up?
A 10 kg cinder block is dropped 50 meters. How many calories of heat will it develop if dropped into 1000 kg water?
SAT2: How much will the water’s temperature go up?
Pool of water
Pool of water
Pool of water

6. Heat Transfer
There are 3 ways that heat can move from one place to another:
radiation
conduction
convection

8. Modes of Heat Transfer qconvection qradiation qconduction
Conduction - diffusion of heat due to temperature gradient
Convection - when heat is carried away by moving fluid
Radiation - emission of energy by electromagnetic waves
qconvection
qradiation
qconduction

9. Typical Design Problems
To determine:
overall heat transfer coefficient - e.g., for a car radiator
highest (or lowest) temperature in a system - e.g., in a gas turbine
temperature distribution (related to thermal stress) - e.g., in the walls of a spacecraft
temperature response in time dependent heating/cooling problems - e.g., how long does it take to cool down a case of soda?

10. Conduction Heat Transfer
Conduction is the transfer of heat by molecular interaction
In a gas, molecular velocity depends on temperature
hot, energetic molecules collide with neighbors, increasing their speed
In solids, the molecules and the lattice structure vibrate

11. II. Unsteady-state conduction
T is a function of both location and time: T=f(x,t)
III Steady state conduction
T is only function of location, constant temperature distribution

12. H = the Rate of Heat Flow through a conductor
Unit:
Joules/sec or Watts
H = Q/T = k A T d
Temperature difference
Thermal Conductivity
thickness
Cross-sectional area

13. Fourier’s Law x “heat flux is proportional to temperature gradient”
where k = thermal conductivity
in general, k = k(x,y,z,T,…)
units for q are W/m2
temperature profile
heat conduction in a slab 1
hot wall
cold wall x

14. Thermal Properties Thermal Conductivity (k) Metric: W / (m.oC)
It is the term used to indicate the amount of heat that will pass through a unit of area of a material at a temperature difference of one degree.
The lower the “k” value, the better the insulation qualities of the material.
Units; US: (Btu.in) / (h.ft2.oF)
Metric: W / (m.oC)
Conductance (c)
It indicates the amount of heat that passes through a given thickness of material;
Conductance= thermal conductivity / thickness
Units; US: Btu / (h.ft2.oF)
Metric: W/ (m2.oC)

15. Example:
Determination of Thermal Conductivity Coefficient for Different Wall Systems (TS EN ISO 8990) 1
Cold Chamber 2
Freeze Fan 3
Thermo- Couples (3 unit) [cold chamber] 4
Thermo- couples (9 unit) [Surface] 5
Wall specimen (1.2 x 1.2 m) 6 7
Hot Chamber 8
Thermo- Couples (3 unit) [hot chamber] 9
Heather Fan

16. Thermal Resistance (RSI for metric unit, R for US units)
It is that property of a material that resist the flow of heat through the material. It is the reciprocal of conductance;
R= 1/c
Thermal Transmittance (U)
It is the amount of heat that passes through all the materials in a system. It is the reciprocal of the total resistance;
U= 1/Rt
Table 1 lists a few of the common materials and their thermal properties;

19. Table 6.1 Thermal properties of materials

21. Variable Thermal Conductivity, k(T)
The thermal conductivity of a material, in general, varies with temperature.
An average value for the thermal conductivity is commonly used when the variation is mild.
This is also common practice for other temperature-dependent properties such as the density and specific heat.

22. Variable Thermal Conductivity for One-Dimensional Cases
When the variation of thermal conductivity with temperature k(T) is known, the average value of the thermal conductivity in the temperature range between T1 and T2 can be determined from
(2-75)
The variation in thermal conductivity of a material with can often be approximated as a linear function and expressed as
(2-79)
b the temperature coefficient of thermal conductivity.

23. Variable Thermal Conductivity
For a plane wall the temperature varies linearly during steady one-dimensional heat conduction when the thermal conductivity is constant.
This is no longer the case when the thermal conductivity changes with temperature (even linearly).

24. H = Q/T = k A T d Let’s try a sample problem using:
A steel slab 5 cm thick is used as a firewall, measuring 3 m x 4 m. If a fire burns at 800 C on one side of a wall, how fast will heat flow through the metal door. (The conductivity of steel is 46 Watts/m•K)

25. Fourier’s Law and the Heat Equation

26. Fourier’s Law
Fourier’s Law
A rate equation that allows determination of the conduction heat flux
from knowledge of the temperature distribution in a medium
Its most general (vector) form for multidimensional conduction is:
Implications:
Heat transfer is in the direction of decreasing temperature
(basis for minus sign).
Fourier’s Law serves to define the thermal conductivity of the
medium
Direction of heat transfer is perpendicular to lines of constant
temperature (isotherms).
Heat flux vector may be resolved into orthogonal components.

27. Cartesian Coordinates:
Heat Flux Components
Cartesian Coordinates:
(2.3)
Cylindrical Coordinates:
(2.18)
Spherical Coordinates:
(2.21)

28. Heat Flux Components (cont.)
In angular coordinates , the temperature gradient is still
based on temperature change over a length scale and hence has
units of C/m and not C/deg.
Heat rate for one-dimensional, radial conduction in a cylinder or sphere:
Cylinder
or,
Sphere

29. Heat Equation
The Heat Equation
A differential equation whose solution provides the temperature distribution in a stationary medium.
Based on applying conservation of energy to a differential control volume
through which energy transfer is exclusively by conduction.
Cartesian Coordinates:
(2.13)
Thermal energy
generation
Change in thermal
energy storage
Net transfer of thermal energy into the
control volume (inflow-outflow)

30. Generalized Heat Diffusion Equation
If we perform a heat balance on a small volume of material…
… we get:
heat conduction in T
heat conduction
out
heat generation
rate of change
of temperature
heat cond.
in/out
heat
generation
thermal diffusivity

31. Heat Equation (Radial Systems)
Cylindrical Coordinates:
(2.20)
Spherical Coordinates:
(2.33)

32. Heat Equation (Special Case)
One-Dimensional Conduction in a Planar Medium with Constant Properties
and No Generation

33. Boundary and Initial Conditions
Boundary Conditions
Boundary and Initial Conditions
For transient conduction, heat equation is first order in time, requiring
specification of an initial temperature distribution:
Since heat equation is second order in space, two boundary conditions
must be specified. Some common cases:
Constant Surface Temperature:
Constant Heat Flux:
Applied Flux
Insulated Surface
Convection

34. Boundary Conditions Tbody
Heat transfer boundary conditions generally come in three types:
q = 20 W/m2
specified heat flux
Neumann condition
q = h(Tamb-Tbody)
external heat transfer
coefficient
Robin condition
T = 300K
specified temperature
Dirichlet condition
Tbody

35. Thermophysical Properties
Thermal Conductivity: A measure of a material’s ability to transfer thermal
energy by conduction.
Thermal Diffusivity: A measure of a material’s ability to respond to changes
in its thermal environment.
Property Tables:
Solids: Tables A.1 – A.3
Gases: Table A.4
Liquids: Tables A.5 – A.7

36. Methodology of a Conduction Analysis
Solve appropriate form of heat equation to obtain the temperature
distribution.
Knowing the temperature distribution, apply Fourier’s Law to obtain the
heat flux at any time, location and direction of interest.
Applications:
Chapter 3: One-Dimensional, Steady-State Conduction
Chapter 4: Two-Dimensional, Steady-State Conduction
Chapter 5: Transient Conduction

37. Chapter 2: Heat Conduction Equation
Copyright © The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. Permission required for reproduction or display.

38. Objectives
When you finish studying this chapter, you should be able to:
Understand multidimensionality and time dependence of heat transfer, and the conditions under which a heat transfer problem can be approximated as being one-dimensional,
Obtain the differential equation of heat conduction in various coordinate systems, and simplify it for steady one-dimensional case,
Identify the thermal conditions on surfaces, and express them mathematically as boundary and initial conditions,
Solve one-dimensional heat conduction problems and obtain the temperature distributions within a medium and the heat flux,
Analyze one-dimensional heat conduction in solids that involve heat generation, and
Evaluate heat conduction in solids with temperature-dependent thermal conductivity.

39. Introduction
Although heat transfer and temperature are closely related, they are of a different nature.
Temperature has only magnitude
it is a scalar quantity.
Heat transfer has direction as well as magnitude
it is a vector quantity.
We work with a coordinate system and indicate direction with plus or minus signs.

40. Introduction ─ Continue
The driving force for any form of heat transfer is the temperature difference.
The larger the temperature difference, the larger the rate of heat transfer.
Three prime coordinate systems:
rectangular (T(x, y, z, t)) ,
cylindrical (T(r, f, z, t)),
spherical (T(r, f, q, t)).

41. Introduction ─ Continue
Classification of conduction heat transfer problems:
steady versus transient heat transfer,
multidimensional heat transfer,
heat generation.

42. Steady versus Transient Heat Transfer
Steady implies no change with time at any point within the medium
Transient implies variation with time or time dependence

43. Multidimensional Heat Transfer
Heat transfer problems are also classified as being:
one-dimensional,
two dimensional,
three-dimensional.
In the most general case, heat transfer through a medium is three-dimensional. However, some problems can be classified as two- or one-dimensional depending on the relative magnitudes of heat transfer rates in different directions and the level of accuracy desired.

44. Heat is conducted in the direction of decreasing temperature, and thus
The rate of heat conduction through a medium in a specified direction (say, in the x-direction) is expressed by Fourier’s law of heat conduction for one-dimensional heat conduction as:
Heat is conducted in the direction
of decreasing temperature, and thus
the temperature gradient is negative
when heat is conducted in the positive x-direction.
(2-1)

45. General Relation for Fourier’s Law of Heat Conduction
The heat flux vector at a point P on the surface of the figure must be perpendicular to the surface, and it must point in the direction of decreasing temperature
If n is the normal of the
isothermal surface at point P,
the rate of heat conduction at
that point can be expressed by
Fourier’s law as
(2-2)

46. General Relation for Fourier’s Law of Heat Conduction-Continue
In rectangular coordinates, the heat conduction vector can be expressed in terms of its components as
which can be determined from Fourier’s law as
(2-3)
(2-4)

47. Heat Generation Examples: Heat generation is a volumetric phenomenon.
electrical energy being converted to heat at a rate of I2R,
fuel elements of nuclear reactors,
exothermic chemical reactions.
Heat generation is a volumetric phenomenon.
The rate of heat generation units : W/m3 or Btu/h · ft3.
The rate of heat generation in a medium may vary with time as well as position within the medium.
The total rate of heat generation in a medium of volume V can be determined from
(2-5)

48. One-Dimensional Heat Conduction Equation - Plane Wall
Rate of heat
conduction
at x
Rate of heat
conduction
at x+Dx
Rate of heat
generation inside the element
Rate of change of the energy content of the element - + =
(2-6)

49. Substituting into Eq. 2–6, we get
(2-6)
The change in the energy content and the rate of heat generation can be expressed as
Substituting into Eq. 2–6, we get
(2-7)
(2-8)
(2-9)
Dividing by ADx, taking the limit as Dx 0 and Dt 0,
and from Fourier’s law:
(2-11)

50. Variable conductivity:
The area A is constant for a plane wall  the one dimensional transient heat conduction equation in a plane wall is
Variable conductivity:
(2-13)
Constant conductivity:
(2-14)
The one-dimensional conduction equation may be reduces to the following forms under special conditions
(2-15)
1) Steady-state:
2) Transient, no heat generation:
(2-16)
3) Steady-state, no heat generation:
(2-17)

51. One-Dimensional Heat Conduction Equation - Long Cylinder
Rate of heat
conduction
at r
Rate of heat
conduction
at r+Dr
Rate of heat
generation inside the element
Rate of change of the energy content of the element - + =
(2-18)

52. Substituting into Eq. 2–18, we get
(2-18)
The change in the energy content and the rate of heat generation can be expressed as
Substituting into Eq. 2–18, we get
(2-19)
(2-20)
(2-21)
Dividing by ADr, taking the limit as Dr 0 and Dt 0,
and from Fourier’s law:
(2-23)

53. Variable conductivity:
Noting that the area varies with the independent variable r according to A=2prL, the one dimensional transient heat conduction equation in a plane wall becomes
(2-25)
Variable conductivity:
Constant conductivity:
(2-26)
The one-dimensional conduction equation may be reduces to the following forms under special conditions
(2-27)
1) Steady-state:
2) Transient, no heat generation:
(2-28)
3) Steady-state, no heat generation:
(2-29)

54. One-Dimensional Heat Conduction Equation - Sphere
Variable conductivity:
(2-30)
Constant conductivity:
(2-31)

55. General Heat Conduction Equation
Rate of heat
conduction
at x, y, and z
Rate of heat
conduction
at x+Dx, y+Dy, and z+Dz
Rate of heat
generation
inside the
element
Rate of change
of the energy
content of the element - + =
(2-36)

56. Constant conductivity:
Repeating the mathematical approach used for the one-dimensional heat conduction the three-dimensional heat conduction equation is determined to be
Two-dimensional
Constant conductivity:
(2-39)
Three-dimensional
(2-40)
1) Steady-state:
2) Transient, no heat generation:
(2-41)
3) Steady-state, no heat generation:
(2-42)

57. Cylindrical Coordinates
(2-43)

58. Spherical Coordinates
(2-44)

59. Boundary and Initial Conditions
Specified Temperature Boundary Condition
Specified Heat Flux Boundary Condition
Convection Boundary Condition
Radiation Boundary Condition
Interface Boundary Conditions
Generalized Boundary Conditions

60. Specified Temperature Boundary Condition
For one-dimensional heat transfer through a plane wall of thickness L, for example, the specified temperature boundary conditions can be expressed as
T(0, t) = T1
T(L, t) = T2
(2-46)
The specified temperatures can be constant, which is the case for steady heat conduction, or may vary with time.

61. Specified Heat Flux Boundary Condition
The heat flux in the positive x-direction anywhere in the medium, including the boundaries, can be expressed by Fourier’s law of heat conduction as
Heat flux in the positive x-direction
(2-47)
The sign of the specified heat flux is determined by inspection: positive if the heat flux is in the positive direction of the coordinate axis, and negative if it is in the opposite direction.

62. Two Special Cases
Insulated boundary
Thermal symmetry
(2-49)
(2-50)

63. Convection Boundary Condition
Heat conduction
at the surface in a
selected direction
Heat convection
at the surface in the same direction =
(2-51a)
and
(2-51b)

64. Radiation Boundary Condition
Heat conduction
at the surface in a
selected direction
Radiation exchange at the surface in
the same direction =
(2-52a)
and
(2-52b)

65. Interface Boundary Conditions
At the interface the requirements are:
(1) two bodies in contact must have the same temperature at the area of contact,
(2) an interface (which is a
surface) cannot store any
energy, and thus the heat flux
on the two sides of an
interface must be the same.
TA(x0, t) = TB(x0, t)
(2-53)
and
(2-54)

66. Generalized Boundary Conditions
In general a surface may involve convection, radiation, and specified heat flux simultaneously. The boundary condition in such cases is again obtained from a surface energy balance, expressed as
Heat transfer
to the surface
in all modes
from the surface
In all modes =
Heat Generation in Solids
The quantities of major interest in a medium with heat generation are the surface temperature Ts and the maximum temperature Tmax that occurs in the medium in steady operation.

67. Heat Generation in Solids -The Surface Temperature
Rate of
heat transfer
from the solid
energy generation
within the solid =
(2-63)
For uniform heat generation within the medium
(2-64)
The heat transfer rate by convection can also be expressed from Newton’s law of cooling as -
(2-65)
(2-66)

68. Heat Generation in Solids -The Surface Temperature
For a large plane wall of thickness 2L (As=2Awall and V=2LAwall)
(2-67)
For a long solid cylinder of radius r0 (As=2pr0L and V=pr02L)
(2-68)
For a solid sphere of radius r0 (As=4pr02 and V=4/3pr03)
(2-69)

69. Heat Generation in Solids -The maximum Temperature in a Cylinder (the Centerline)
The heat generated within an inner cylinder must be equal to the heat conducted through its outer surface.
(2-70)
Substituting these expressions into the above equation and separating the variables, we get
Integrating from r =0 where T(0) =T0 to r=ro
(2-71)

70. Variable Thermal Conductivity, k(T)
The thermal conductivity of a material, in general, varies with temperature.
An average value for the thermal conductivity is commonly used when the variation is mild.
This is also common practice for other temperature-dependent properties such as the density and specific heat.

71. Variable Thermal Conductivity for One-Dimensional Cases
When the variation of thermal conductivity with temperature k(T) is known, the average value of the thermal conductivity in the temperature range between T1 and T2 can be determined from
(2-75)
The variation in thermal conductivity of a material with can often be approximated as a linear function and expressed as
(2-79)
b the temperature coefficient of thermal conductivity.

72. Variable Thermal Conductivity
For a plane wall the temperature varies linearly during steady one-dimensional heat conduction when the thermal conductivity is constant.
This is no longer the case when the thermal conductivity changes with temperature (even linearly).