1. Logical Fallacies

2. Begging the question
Asks the reader to accept something without providing any real evidence
Circular argument– relies on a premise that says the same thing as the conclusion
Example: Euthanasia is acceptable because it is morally acceptable.

3. Cherry-picking
Leaves out significant facts that do not support the claim being made

4. Common Knowledge fallacy
Assumes that because a story is repeated, it must be true

5. Either/Or (false dichotomy)
Suggest that there are only two choices, even if a situation is complex
Example: You are either with us or you are against us.

6. False analogy
Analogies must have some sort of resemblance for a comparison to be made. This fallacy fails to acknowledge differences.
Example: Guns are like hammers– they’re both tools with metal parts that could be used to kill someone. And yet it would be ridiculous to restrict the purchase of hammers– so restrictions on purchasing guns are equally ridiculous.

7. Hasty generalization
Broad claim made on the basis of a few occurences.
Example: My roomate said that her philosophy class was hard, and the one I’m in is hard, too. All philosophy classes must be hard!

8. Non sequitur (“it does not follow”) Ties together two unrelated ideas
Example: All men are humans Mary is a human Therefore, Mary is a man.

9. oversimplification
The claim may be true, but the argument would be unacceptable to most citizens.
Example: Noone would take longer than 5 minutes to go to the bathroom at PLD if they would receive two days in TAP for being out longer.

10. Post hoc ergo propter hoc
“After this, therefore because of this”
Assumes that just because events follow in time, the first caused the second.
Example: President Jones raised taxes, and then the rate of violent crime went up. Jones is responsible for the rise in crime.

11. rationalization
Excuses and weak explanations for one’s own behavior or the behavior of others.
Example: I would have passed my final if the teacher didn’t hate me.

12. Slippery slope
One thing will inevitably cause other thing to happen , or a chain of events
Example: Animal experimentation reduces our respect for life. It we don’t respect life, we are likely to be more and more tolerant of violent acts like war and murder. Soon our society will become a battlefield in which everyone constantly fears for their lives.

13. Bandwagon appeal (ad populum
Everyone is doing it so you should too.
Appeals to desire to be liked and fit in.
Example: ________ is immoral. Ninety percent of Americans agree!

14. Name-calling (ad hominem)
“Against the person”
Arguer attacks the opponent instead of the argument.
Example: You shouldn’t believe Joe’s explanation because Joe is a bad person who kicks puppies!

15. polarization Exaggerates positions by presenting them as extremes
Example: Republicans are all ______. OR Democrats are all ________.

16. Straw man
Sets up another’s position in a way that can be easily rejected.
Example: Senator Jones says that we should not fund the attack submarine program. I disagree entirely. I can't understand why he wants to leave us defenseless like that."

17. Appeal to authority
Get the readers to agree with us by impressing them with famous names or supposed authority figures who aren’t true experts (the “inexpert expert”)

18. Appeal to pity
Try to get the listener/reader to accept a conclusion because they feel sorry for you (or someone else)

19. Appeal to ignorance
Arguer basically says, “Look, there’s no conclusive evidence on the issue at hand. Therefore, you should accept my conclusion on this issue.”
Example: People have been trying for centuries to prove that God exists. No one has yet been able to prove it. Therefore, God does not exist.

20. Red herring
Partway through an argument, the arguer goes off on a tangent, raising a side issue that distracts the audience from what’s really at stake.
Example: Grading this exam on a curve would be the most fair thing to do. After all, classes go more smoothly when the students and the professor are getting along well.”