1. Cell Division: The Cell Cycle
Cell Cycle is the pattern of division & growth of a cell.
It involves the copy & distribution of the genome into 2 daughter cells.
Genome is a cell’s total hereditary endowment or the entire genetic code (DNA) found within the nucleus of a cell.
It takes place inside the somatic cells of humans with the exception of red blood cells & certain nerve cells.
Somatic cells are all the body’s cells except the reproductive cells; egg & sperm.
Somatic cells contain 46 chromosomes.
Chromosomes are condensed chromatin into double rods (chromatids) of genetic material.
Chromatin
The mass of very long, thin fibers of DNA & proteins that are found unwound within the nucleus.
Chromatid
½ of the double-rodded structure of a chromosome

2. The cell cycle serves 3 main functions….
Reproduction
In single-celled organisms, 2 separate individual organisms are the result of the cell cycle.
Growth & development
In multi-cellular organisms, rapid copying of cells via the cell cycle add to the growing organism.
Tissue & renewal
In multi-cellular organisms that have reached maximum growth, the cell cycle renews & replaces older cells to maintain and organism’s size & function.

3. The Cell Cycle occurs in 3 stages.
Stage 1: Interphase (21 hours)
Interphase is the longest of the 3 stages of the Cell Cycle
Interphase is divided into 3 subphases:
G1 (1st gap)
S phase
G2 (2nd gap)
The cell begins to grow & enlarge during all 3 subphases of Interphase.

4. The cell produces structures that will be used to help the cell divide into 2 new cells.
Centromere connects the chromatids or double rods of chromosomes.
Centrioles are organelles used to separate & pull chromosomes into new nuclei.
Spindle fibers are bands that extend from the centriole & attach to the chromosome & pull it into separate nuclei.

5. Steps of DNA replication
The primary process that takes place during Interphase is the replication of DNA.
DNA (deoxyribonucleic acid) is the sequence of nitrogen base pairs that determines the structure of proteins and serves as the genetic code of life.
Replication is the process by which the DNA makes an exact copy of itself.
DNA (chromatin within the nucleus) replicates or copies itself only during the S phase of interphase.
Steps of DNA replication
Step 1: DNA unzips; bonds connecting nitrogen base pairs dissolves.
Step 2: RNA brings in & attaches new nitrogen bases to the now exposed nitrogen bases resulting in 2 sets of nitrogen base pairs (Adenine to Thymine & Guanine to Cytosine).
Step 3: Deoxyribose & Phosphate are brought in to complete the sides resulting in 2 exact copies of the DNA molecule.

6. Stage 2: Mitosis (<50 minutes)
During Mitosis, 2 nuclei are created and 1 copy of the DNA created during Interphase is distributed to each of the nuclei.
This process is typically divided into 4 primary phases.
Phase 1: Prophase
Phase 2: Metaphase
Recently a new phase; Prometaphase, has been added in between Prophase and Metaphase.
Phase 3: Anaphase
Phase 4: Telophase

7. Stage 3: Cytokinesis (< 15 minutes)
The cytoplasm divides.
The 1st sign of cleavage is the appearance of a cleavage furrow.
A cleavage furrow is shallow groove in the cell surface near the old metaphase plate.
2 new cell membranes form around the 2 new cells.
The new cells have an identical set of chromosomes and half of the organelles.

8. Nucleic acids
Organic molecule that contains the instructions cells need to carry out all of the functions of life.
Composed of the elements Carbon, Oxygen, Hydrogen, Nitrogen & Phosphorus in various combinations.
There are 2 types of nucleic acids
Deoxyribonucleic acid
More commonly known by the acronym, DNA
Ribonucleic acid
More commonly known by the acronym, RNA

9. Proteins serve several functions within the body…
RNA is responsible for carrying the genetic code from the DNA in the nucleus to Ribosomes.
Ribosomes are the cell organelle located within the cytoplasm that is responsible for protein production.
Proteins are large organic molecules made of carbon, hydrogen, oxygen, nitrogen & in certain cases, sulfur.
Amino acids are the building blocks of proteins.
There are over 20 known amino acids
10 essential; must be ingested
10 non-essential; the body synthesizes or makes.
Proteins serve several functions within the body…
Building blocks for most cell organelles & body structures.
Hair, skin, fingernails, muscles, etc.
Proteins form parts of various cells membranes.

10. Enzymes are specialized proteins that speed up or slow down chemical reactions within the body.
There are 2 types of RNA.
Type 1: Messenger RNA (mRNA)
mRNA: responsible for taking a copy of the DNA code from the chromosomes in the nucleus to the appropriate ribosome.
Type 2: Transfer RNA (tRNA)
tRNA: responsible for bring the appropriate amino acid to the ribosome to build the protein.
RNA, which stands for ribonucleic acid, contains the same nitrogen bases as DNA with the exception of one and is only 1 strand unlike the 2 in DNA.
Thymine is replaced with Uracil and matches up with Adenine.

11. Steps to Protein synthesis
Messenger RNA production
DNA unzips
RNA bases match up along one of the unzipped DNA strands.
Genetic information is transferred from the DNA strand to the RNA strand.
Messenger RNA attaches to a Ribosome
The ribosome moves along the messenger RNA strand reading the genetic code 3 bases (codons) at a time.
Codon: a 3 letter combination of the 4 nitrogen bases that code for & match up to a specific amino acid.
Stop codons: 3 letter combination that tells the ribosome to stop adding amino acids to a growing protein chain.

12. Transfer RNA attaches to Messenger RNA
Based on the specific 3 letter combination (codon) that is read the transfer RNA retrieves the amino acid that the codon matches.
The amino acid is then connected to the previous amino acid.
Protein production finishes
The protein chain continues to grow with each amino acid that is added.
The ribosome reaches a STOP codon or 3 letter combination that tells the ribosome to stop adding amino acids to the protein chain.
The protein chain is then released and transported to the part of the body that it is needed.