1. ST3004: Research Methods Research Design

2. Research Question Literature Review Research Design Data Collection
Data Analysis
Write Report
Present
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3. The Research Onion
Source: © Mark Saunders, Philip Lewis and Adrian Thornhill 2008
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4. Characteristics of Scientific Research
Purposiveness
Research should have a definite aim or purpose.
Rigor
Rigor indicates carefulness and degree of exactitude in research. This is achieved through a good theoretical base and sound methodological design.
Replicability
The results of the test of hypothesis should be supported again and again when same type of research is conducted in other similar circumstances.
Objectivity
Research finding should be factual, databased and free from bias. The conclusion drawn should be based on the facts of the findings derived form the actual data and not on the basis of subjective or emotional values.

5. Characteristics of Scientific Research
Precision and Confidence
Precision refers to the closeness of the findings to reality based on a sample. Precision reflects the degree of exactness and accuracy of the results on the basis of samples. Also known as confidence interval in statistics.
Confidence refers to the probability that our estimation are correct so, for example, that we can confidently claim that 95% of the time our results will be true and there is only 5% chance of our results being false.
Generalisability
The scope of applying the research findings of one organizational setting to other settings of almost similar nature. The more generalisable the research, the greater will be its usefulness and value. 
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6. Research Approach
Deductive: develop a theory and hypothesis (or hypotheses) and design a research strategy to test the hypothesis.
Deductive approach tests a theory
Inductive: collect data and develop theory as a result of your data analysis.
Inductive approach generates a theory
©Nina Bresnihan, School of Computer Science & Statistics, TCD 2017

7. Deductive
Deduction owes much to what we would think of as scientific research.
It involves the development of a theory that is then subjected to a rigorous test.
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8. Deductive Use existing theory to develop hypotheses.
Test and confirm (in whole or in part) or refute hypotheses.
This leads to the further development of theory which then may be tested by further research.
©Nina Bresnihan, School of Computer Science & Statistics, TCD 2017

9. Inductive
Inductive reasoning works the other way, moving from specific observations to broader generalizations and theories. 
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10. Inductive Begin with specific observations and measures
Analyse to detect patterns and regularities
Formulate some tentative hypotheses that you can explore
Finally end up developing some general conclusions or theories.
©Nina Bresnihan, School of Computer Science & Statistics, TCD 2017

11. Inductive and Deductive
Inductive reasoning, by its very nature, is more open- ended and exploratory, especially at the beginning.
Deductive reasoning is more narrow in nature and is concerned with testing or confirming hypotheses.
©Nina Bresnihan, School of Computer Science & Statistics, TCD 2017

12. Inductive and Deductive
Note: A lot of research involves both inductive and deductive reasoning processes at some time in the project. 
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13. Research Design
The way you choose to answer your research question (your research design) will be influenced by your research philosophy and approach.
Your research question will subsequently inform your
choice of research strategy,
your choices of collection techniques and analysis procedures, and
the time horizon over which you undertake your research project.
©Nina Bresnihan, School of Computer Science & Statistics, TCD 2017

14. Research Design
Your research design will be the plan of how you will go about answering your research question(s)
It will outline
your objectives (derived from your research question),
your data collection strategy, and
the constraints (e.g. access to data, time, location and money)
any ethical issues that may arise.
It will also contain a justification of your design decisions.
©Nina Bresnihan, School of Computer Science & Statistics, TCD 2017

15. Research Purpose
When you define your research question, you inevitably have begun to think about the purpose of your research.
Is it
exploratory?
descriptive?
explanatory?
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16. Research Purpose - Exploratory
Broad in focus and rarely providing definite answers to specific research issues.
The exploration of new phenomena in this way may
help the researcher’s need for better understanding,
test the feasibility of a more extensive study, or
determine the best methods to be used in a subsequent study.
Might involve a literature search or conducting focus group interviews.
E.g. An exploratory study of a new management technique in order to brief a management team. This would be a vital first step before deciding whether to embrace the technique.
©Nina Bresnihan, School of Computer Science & Statistics, TCD 2017

17. Research Purpose - Exploratory
If you define your study as exploratory research, then you need to clearly define the objectives. Calling your report “exploratory” is not an excuse for lack of definition.
The flexibility inherent in exploratory research does not mean absence of direction to the enquiry.
What it does mean is that the focus is initially broad and becomes progressively narrower as the research progresses.
©Nina Bresnihan, School of Computer Science & Statistics, TCD 2017

18. Research Purpose - Descriptive
Descriptive research seeks to provide an accurate description of observations of a phenomena.
E.g The object of the collection of census data is to accurately describe basic information about a national population at a particular point in time.
The objective of much descriptive research is to map the terrain of a specific phenomenon.
©Nina Bresnihan, School of Computer Science & Statistics, TCD 2017

19. Research Purpose - Descriptive
A study of this type could start with questions such as:
‘What similarities or contrasts exist between A and B?’, where A and B are
different departments in the same organisation, or
different regional operations of the same firm, or
different companies in the same industry.
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20. Research Purpose - Descriptive
Such descriptive comparisons can produce useful insights and lead to hypothesis-formation and be a precursor to explanation.
Such studies are known as descripto-explanatory studies.
E.g.: A detailed set of data on the profile of clients would be an example of this type of report. By understanding the customer better, sales and marketing management will be able to take better decisions on new product development.
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21. Research Purpose - Explanatory
Explanatory studies look for explanations of the nature of certain relationships.
Hypothesis testing provides an understanding of the relationships that exist between variables.
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22. Exploratory? Descriptive? Explanatory?
What have been the trends in organisational downsizing over the past 10 years?
Descriptive
Why is the quality of service declining in our business?
Exploratory
Which of two training programs is more effective for reducing labour turnover?
Explanatory
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23. Exploratory? Descriptive? Explanatory?
Would people be interested in our new product idea?
Exploratory
Did last year’s product recall have an impact on our company’s share price?
Descriptive
How important is business process reengineering as a strategy?
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24. Exploratory? Descriptive? Explanatory?
Can I predict the value of energy stocks if I know the current dividends and the growth rate of dividends?
Explanatory
Has the average merger rate for financial institutions increased over the last decade?
Descriptive
Do buyers prefer our product in a new package?
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25. Research Purpose
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26. Research Strategies Experiment Survey Case Study Action Research
Grounded Theory
Ethnography
Archival Research
Each strategy can be used for exploratory, descriptive and explanatory research.
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27. Research Strategies - Experiment
Traditionally used by physical and behavioural researchers
However, experimental research can be effectively used in businesses in order to analyse cause and effect relationships.
Deductive approach is mainly used for experimental research in order to test hypotheses.
©Nina Bresnihan, School of Computer Science & Statistics, TCD 2017

28. Research Strategies - Experiment
Specifically experimental studies involve manipulation with an independent variable in order to assess its impacts on dependent variables.
E.g. Changes in price levels on volume of sales.
Here price can be specified as independent variable, whereas sales would be dependent variable.
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29. Research Strategies - Experiment
Saunders (2008, pp ) describes the typical experiment as involving
definition of a theoretical hypothesis (e.g.: the introduction of a promotion will result in a change in the number of sales);
selection of samples of individuals from known populations;
random allocation of samples to different experimental conditions, the experimental group and the control group;
introduction of planned intervention or manipulation of one or more of the variables (e.g., the introduction of the promotion);
measurement of a small number of dependent variables (e.g., purchasing behaviour);
control of all other variables.
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30. Research Strategies - Experiment
Control Group
Experimental Group
Group members assigned at random
Dependent variable measured
Intervention/Manipulation of dependent variable
Dependent variable measured
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31. Research Strategies - Survey
The survey strategy is usually associated with the deductive approach.
It is a popular and common strategy in business and management research.
Most frequently used to answer who, what, where, how much and how many questions.
It therefore tends to be used for exploratory and descriptive research.
©Nina Bresnihan, School of Computer Science & Statistics, TCD 2017

32. Research Strategies - Survey
The essence of the survey method can be explained as “questioning individuals on a topic or topics and then describing their responses” (Jackson, 2011, p.17).
In business, the survey method is used in order to
test concepts,
reflect attitudes of people,
establish the level of customer satisfaction,
conduct segmentation research…
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33. Research Strategies – Case Study
Research which involves an empirical investigation of a particular contemporary phenomenon within its real life context
It is of particular interest if you wish to gain a rich understanding of the context of the research and the processes being enacted.
There are usual multiple data collection instruments (observation, questionnaires, surveys, interviews…) in order to enable triangulation (confirmation of results).
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34. Research Strategies – Case Study
Single case v. Multiple case
Single Case
often used where it represents a critical case or where it is an extreme or unique case.
Conversely, a single case may be selected because it is typical.
Multiple Case
to establish whether the findings of the first case occur in other cases
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35. Research Strategies – Case Study
Advantages:
data collection and analysis within the context of phenomenon,
The ability to capture complexities of real-life situations so that the phenomenon can be studied in greater levels of depth.
Disadvantages
lack of rigour
challenges associated with data analysis
little basis for generalisations of findings and conclusions
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36. Case Study – Generalisability?
What conclusions can be drawn from a case study and under what circumstances?
Is the case interesting enough in its own right?
What can be generalised from the study?
What implication does this have on the description and analysis?
Can a case study “prove” anything?

37. “The task is not to understand the world but to change it” – Karl Marx
Action Research
“The task is not to understand the world but to change it” – Karl Marx
Goal is to understand, improve and reform practice.
(Cohen 2000, chp6)

38. Action Research Cycle

39. Action Research - Some Key Aspects
Practical. Carried out in situ.
Collaborative. Enhances competencies of participants.
Formative process.
Self reflective spiral is crucial.
Involves gathering compelling evidence (for change).
Start small and work out.

40. Action Research Advantages: a focus on change,
the recognition that time needs to be devoted to diagnosing, planning, taking action and evaluating, and
the involvement of employees (practitioners) throughout the process.
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41. Grounded Theory
Grounded theory is a research method that involves forming a theory based on the gathered data as opposed to gathering data after forming a theory.
It allows an understanding of the phenomenon to emerge through data analysis and a literature search that is performed mainly after data have been collected
In other words, it kind of turns the whole research process around.
Grounded theory is called 'grounded' because the theory is grounded in the data.
©Nina Bresnihan, School of Computer Science & Statistics, TCD 2017

42. Ethnography Inductive Comes from the field of anthropology.
Interested in the characteristics of a community at large
Often involves looking at how the culture and beliefs of a community affect the behaviours and thoughts of individuals within that community.
The purpose is to describe and explain the social world the research subjects inhabit in the way in which they would describe and explain it.
©Nina Bresnihan, School of Computer Science & Statistics, TCD 2017

43. Ethnography
Observations, interviews and documents can all be a good source of information for ethnographic researchers.
The biggest challenge that faces those who do ethnographic research is the balance between getting close to their subjects and maintaining distance. 
©Nina Bresnihan, School of Computer Science & Statistics, TCD 2017

44. Archival research
Makes use of administrative records and documents as the principal source of data.
Can refer to recent as well as historical documents.
Allows research questions which focus upon the past and changes over time to be answered, be they exploratory, descriptive or explanatory.
However, your ability to answer such questions will inevitably be constrained by the nature of the administrative records and documents.
©Nina Bresnihan, School of Computer Science & Statistics, TCD 2017

45. References
Jackson, SL (2011) Research Methods and Statistics: A Critical Approach, 4th edition, Cengage Learning
Saunders, Thornhill and Lewis (2009) Research Methods for Business Students, 5th Edition, Prentice Hall
©Nina Bresnihan, School of Computer Science & Statistics, TCD 2017