1. EEC-484/584 Computer Networks
Lecture 10
Wenbing Zhao
(Part of the slides are based on Drs. Kurose & Ross’s slides for their Computer Networking book)

2. EEC-484/584: Computer Networks
Outline
Routing algorithms
Link state routing
Distance vector routing
Internet protocol v4
Header
Fragmentation
Internet Protocol v6
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EEC-484/584: Computer Networks

3. EEC-484/584: Computer Networks
Link State Routing
Basic idea
Assumes net topology & link costs known to all nodes
Accomplished via “link state broadcast”
All nodes have same info
Computes least cost paths from one node (‘source”) to all other nodes, using Dijkstra’s Algorithm
Gives forwarding table for that node
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EEC-484/584: Computer Networks

4. EEC-484/584: Computer Networks
Dijkstra’s Algorithm
Each node labeled with distance from source node along best known path
Initially, no paths known so all nodes labeled with infinity
As algorithm proceeds, labels may change reflecting shortest path
Label may be tentative or permanent, initially, all tentative
When label represents shortest path from source to node, label becomes permanent
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EEC-484/584: Computer Networks

5. Compute Shortest Path from A to D
Start with node A as the initial working node
Examine each of the nodes adjacent to A, i.e., B and G, relabeling them with the distance to A
Examine all the tentatively labeled nodes in the whole graph and make the one with the smallest label permanent, i.e., B. B is the new working node
Steps computing the shortest path from A to D, using Dijkstra’s algorithm. The arrows indicate the working node.
We start out by marking node A as permanent, indicated by a filled-in circle. Then we examine, in turn, each of the nodes adjacent to A (the working node), relabeling each one with the distance to A. Whenever a node is relabeled, we also label it with the node from which the probe was made so that we can reconstruct the final path later. Having examined each of the nodes adjacent to A, we examine all the tentatively labeled nodes in the whole graph and make the one with the smallest label permanent. This one becomes the new working node.
Last two steps: C(9,B) permanent; D(10,H) permanent;
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EEC-484/584: Computer Networks

6. Compute Shortest Path from A to D
Stopped here step3
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EEC-484/584: Computer Networks

7. EEC-484/584: Computer Networks
Step
Permanently labeled B G E C F H D 1 A
2,A
6,A ∞ 2 AB
4,B
9,B 3
ABE
5,E
6,E 4
ABEG
9,G 5
ABEGF
8,F 6
ABEGFH
10,H 7
ABEGFHC 8
ABEGFHCD
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8. EEC-484/584: Computer Networks
Computation Results A B C D E F G H
Destination
Routing Table in A
link B C D E F G H
(A,B)
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9. Distance Vector Routing
Also called Bellman-Ford or Ford-Fulkerson
Each router maintains a table, giving best known distance to each destination and which line to use to get there
Table is updated by exchanging info with neighbors
Table contains one entry for each router in network with
Preferred outgoing line to that destination
Estimate of time or distance to that destination
Once every T msec, router sends to each neighbor a list of estimated delays to each destination and receives same from those neighbors
Used in ARPANET
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EEC-484/584: Computer Networks

10. Distance Vector Routing: How each entry is updated
d(A,X)
d(A,Y) A X Z
d(Y,Z)
d(X,Z)
At router A, for Z
Compute d(A,X) + d(X,Z) and
d(A,Y) + d(Y,Z), take minimum Y
d(A,Z) = min {d(A,v) + d(v,Z) }
where min is taken over all neighbors v of A
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EEC-484/584: Computer Networks

11. EEC-484/584: Computer Networks
d(x,z) = min{d(x,y) d(y,z), d(x,z) + d(z,z)}
= min{2+1 , 7+0} = 3
d(x,y) = min{d(x,y) + d(y,y), d(x,z) + d(z,y)} = min{2+0 , 7+1} = 2
node x table
x y z x y z ∞
from
cost to
cost to
x y z x 2 3
from y z
node y table
cost to x z 1 2 7 y
x y z x ∞ ∞ ∞ y
from z ∞ ∞ ∞
Each node keeps track of the following info:
Its own distance vector: least-cost to each of other routers
Each of its neighbor’s distance vector received most recently
If there is a change in distance vector, a node sends the update to all its neighbors
node z table
cost to
x y z x
∞ ∞ ∞
from y ∞ ∞ ∞ z 7 1
time
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EEC-484/584: Computer Networks

12. EEC-484/584: Computer Networks
d(x,z) = min{d(x,y) d(y,z), d(x,z) + d(z,z)}
= min{2+1 , 7+0} = 3
d(x,y) = min{d(x,y) + d(y,y), d(x,z) + d(z,y)} = min{2+0 , 7+1} = 2
node x table
x y z x y z ∞
from
cost to
cost to
cost to
x y z
x y z x x
from y
from y z z
node y table
cost to
cost to
cost to x z 1 2 7 y
x y z
x y z
x y z x ∞ ∞ x ∞ x y
from y
from
from y z z ∞ ∞ ∞ z
node z table
cost to
cost to
cost to
x y z
x y z
x y z x x x
∞ ∞ ∞
from y
from y
from y ∞ ∞ ∞ z z z 7 1
time
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13. Distance Vector Routing
Distance from A to B 12ms, to C 25ms, to D 40ms, to G 18ms
Distance from J to A 8ms, to I 10ms, to H 12ms, to K 6ms
Distance from J to A to G 8+18 = 26ms to I to G = 41ms to H to G 12+6=18ms to K to G 6+31=37ms
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EEC-484/584: Computer Networks

14. Distance Vector Routing
Good news travels fast
Bad news travels slow
Count to infinity problem: Takes too long to converge upon router failure ×
Routers’ knowledge about the cost to A
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EEC-484/584: Computer Networks

15. The Network Layer in Internet
Host, router network layer functions:
Transport layer: TCP, UDP
IP protocol
addressing conventions
datagram format
packet handling conventions
Routing protocols
path selection
RIP, OSPF, BGP
Network
layer
Routing Information Protocol (RIP)
Open Shortest Path First (OSPF)
Border Gateway Protocol (BGP)
forwarding
table
ICMP protocol
error reporting
router “signaling”
Link layer
physical layer
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EEC-484/584: Computer Networks

16. IPv4 Datagram Format How much overhead with TCP? data
IP protocol version
number
32 bits
total datagram
length (bytes)
header length
(bytes)
type of
service
Total
length
ver
IHL
for
fragmentation/
reassembly
“type” of data
fragment
offset
16-bit identifier
flgs
max number
remaining hops
(decremented at
each router)
time to
live
header
checksum
protocol
32 bit source IP address
Type of service field: 6 bits, after which, there are 2 reserved bits
Flags field has 3 bits: first bit is reserved, second bit: DF, third bit: MF
Fragmentation offset is 13 bits long
32 bit destination IP address
upper layer protocol
to deliver payload to
Options (if any)
E.g. timestamp,
record route
taken, specify
list of routers
to visit.
How much overhead with TCP?
20 bytes of TCP
20 bytes of IP
= 40 bytes + app layer overhead
data
(variable length,
typically a TCP
or UDP segment)
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17. EEC-484/584: Computer Networks
The IPv4 Header
Version – 4
IHL – length of header in 32-bit words
Min 5, max 15 – i.e., 60 bytes
Type of service - to distinguish different classes of service
To accommodate differentiated services (which class this packet belongs to)
Total length – header and data  65,535 (216-1) bytes
Identification – allows destination to determine which datagram a fragment belongs to
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EEC-484/584: Computer Networks

18. EEC-484/584: Computer Networks
The IPv4 Header
Time to live – counter to limit packet lifetimes
Max lifetime 255sec
Packet is destroyed when counter becomes 0
Protocol – which transport layer protocols being used
Header checksum – verifies header
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EEC-484/584: Computer Networks

19. EEC-484/584: Computer Networks
The IPv4 Header
Options – security, error reporting, etc.
Some of the IP options
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20. EEC-484/584: Computer Networks
IPv4 Fragmentation
Fragmentation Flags
DF – tells routers “Don’t Fragment”
MF – More Fragments. All fragments except last have this set. Used as check against total length
Fragment offset – where in datagram this fragment belongs
All fragments (payload in the IP packet) except last must be multiples of 8 bytes
The number of 8 byte blocks is called Number of Fragment Blocks (NFB)
The unit of the offset is NFB
Remember that when an IP packet is fragmented, each fragment still contains a full IP header, with the original source/destination IP addresses!!!
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EEC-484/584: Computer Networks

21. IPv4 Fragmentation & Reassembly
in: one large datagram
out: 3 smaller datagrams
Network links have MTU (max.transfer size) - largest possible link-level frame.
different link types, different MTUs
Large IP datagram divided (“fragmented”) within net
one datagram becomes several datagrams
“reassembled” only at final destination
IP header bits used to identify, order related fragments
reassembly
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EEC-484/584: Computer Networks

22. IPv4 Fragmentation and ReassemblyID =x
offset =0 MF
length
=4000
Example
4000 byte datagram
MTU = 1500 bytes
One large datagram becomes
several smaller datagrams ID =x
offset =0 MF =1
length
=1500
1480 bytes in data field ID =x
offset
=185 MF =1
length
=1500
offset =
1480/8 ID =x
offset
=370 MF =0
length
=1040
Fragment should be as large as possible
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EEC-484/584: Computer Networks

23. IPv6: motivation
initial motivation: 32-bit address space soon to be completely allocated.
additional motivation:
header format helps speed processing/forwarding
header changes to facilitate QoS
IPv6 datagram format:
fixed-length 40 byte header
no fragmentation allowed
Network Layer

24. IPv6 datagram format
priority: identify priority among datagrams in flow
flow Label: identify datagrams in same “flow.”
(concept of“flow” not well defined).
next header: identify upper layer protocol for data
ver
pri
flow label
payload len
next hdr
hop limit
source address
(128 bits)
destination address
(128 bits)
data
Network Layer
32 bits

25. Other changes from IPv4
checksum: removed entirely to reduce processing time at each hop
options: allowed, but outside of header, indicated by “Next Header” field
ICMPv6: new version of ICMP
additional message types, e.g. “Packet Too Big”
multicast group management functions
Network Layer

26. Transition from IPv4 to IPv6
not all routers can be upgraded simultaneously
no “flag days”
how will network operate with mixed IPv4 and IPv6 routers?
tunneling: IPv6 datagram carried as payload in IPv4 datagram among IPv4 routers
IPv4 header fields
UDP/TCP payload
IPv6 source dest addr
IPv6 header fields
IPv4 payload
IPv4 source, dest addr
IPv6 datagram
IPv4 datagram
Network Layer

27. connecting IPv6 routers
Tunneling
logical view:
IPv4 tunnel
connecting IPv6 routers E
IPv6 F A B A B
IPv6 C D E
IPv6 F
physical view:
IPv4
IPv4
Network Layer

28. connecting IPv6 routers
Tunneling
logical view:
IPv4 tunnel
connecting IPv6 routers E
IPv6 F A B A B
IPv6 C D E
IPv6 F
physical view:
IPv4
IPv4
flow: X
src: A
dest: F
data
A-to-B:
IPv6
Flow: X
Src: A
Dest: F
data
src:B
dest: E
B-to-C:
IPv6 inside
IPv4
B-to-C:
IPv6 inside
IPv4
Flow: X
Src: A
Dest: F
data
src:B
dest: E
E-to-F:
IPv6
flow: X
src: A
dest: F
data
Network Layer

29. Dijkstra’s Algorithm: Exercise
Given the subnet shown below, using the Dijkstra’s Algorithm, determine the shortest path tree from node u and its routing table u y x w v z 2 1 3 5
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30. Distance Vector Routing: Exercise
Consider the subnet shown below. Distance vector routing is used, and the following vectors have just come in to router C: from B: (5, 0, 8, 12, 6, 2); from D: (16, 12, 6, 0, 9, 10); and from E: (7, 6, 3, 9, 0, 4). The measured delays to B, D, and E, are 6, 3, and 5, respectively. What is C's new routing table? Give both the outgoing line to use and the expected delay.
Postpone the discussion on the solution to link state to discussion session?
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EEC-484/584: Computer Networks

31. Exercise: IP Fragmentation
Suppose that host A is connected to a router R 1, R 1 is connected to another router, R 2, and R 2 is connected to host B. Suppose that a TCP message that contains 900 bytes of data and 20 bytes of TCP header is passed to the IP code at host A for delivery to B. Show the Total length, Identification, DF, MF, and Fragment offset fields of the IP header in each packet transmitted over the three links. Assume that link A-R1 can support a maximum frame size of 1024 bytes including a 14-byte frame header, link R1-R2 can support a maximum frame size of 512 bytes, including an 8-byte frame header, and link R2-B can support a maximum frame size of 512 bytes including a 12-byte frame header.
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EEC-484/584: Computer Networks