1. Chapter 17 From Gene to Protein

2. Question? How does DNA control a cell?
By controlling Protein Synthesis.
Proteins are the link between genotype and phenotype.

3. For tests: Name(s) of experimenters Outline of the experiment
Result of the experiment and its importance

4. Archibald Garrod
Suggested genes control enzymes that catalyze chemical processes in cells.
Inherited Diseases - “inborn errors of metabolism” where a person can’t make an enzyme.

5. Example Alkaptonuria - where urine turns black after exposure to air.
Lacks - an enzyme to metabolize alkapton.

7. George Beadle and Edward Tatum
Worked with Neurospora and proved the link between genes and enzymes.
Neurospora
Pink bread mold

8. Experiment Grew Neurospora on agar. Varied the nutrients.
Looked for mutants that failed to grow on minimum agar.

10. Results Three classes of mutants for Arginine Synthesis.
Each mutant had a different block in the Arginine Synthesis pathway.

12. Conclusion Mutations were abnormal genes.
Each gene dictated the synthesis of one enzyme.
One Gene - One Enzyme Hypothesis.

13. Current Hypothesis
One Gene - One Polypeptide Hypothesis (because of 4th degree structure).

14. Central Dogma
DNA
Transcription
RNA
Translation
Polypeptide

16. Explanation DNA - the Genetic code or genotype.
RNA - the message or instructions.
Polypeptide - the product for the phenotype.

17. Genetic Code
Sequence of DNA bases that describe which Amino Acid to place in what order in a polypeptide.
The genetic code gives the primary protein structure.

18. Code Basis If you use: 1 base = 1 amino acid 4 bases = 4 amino acids
41 = 4 combinations, which are not enough for 20 AAs.

19. If you use: 2 bases = 1 amino acid Ex – AT, TA, CA, GC
42 = 16 amino acids
Still not enough combinations.

20. If you use: 3 bases = 1AA Ex – CAT, AGC, TTT 43 = 64 combinations
More than enough for 20 amino acids.

22. Genetic Code Is based on triplets of bases.
Has redundancy; some AA's have more than 1 code.
Proof - make artificial RNA and see what AAs are used in protein synthesis (early 1960’s).

23. Codon A 3-nucleotide “word” in the Genetic Code.
64 possible codons known.

24. DNA vs RNA DNA RNA Sugar – deoxyribose ribose Bases – ATGC AUGC
Backbones –
Size – very large small
Use – genetic code varied

26. Codon Dictionary Start- AUG (Met) Stop- UAA UAG UGA
60 codons for the other 19 AAs.

27. For Testing:
Be able to “read” a DNA or RNA message and give the AA sequence.
RNA Genetic Code Table will be provided.

28. Code Redundancy Third base in a codon shows "wobble”.
First two bases are the most important in reading the code and giving the correct AA. The third base often doesn’t matter.

29. Code Evolution The genetic code is nearly universal.
Ex: CCG = proline (all life)
Reason - The code must have evolved very early. Life on earth must share a common ancestor.

30. Reading Frame and Frame Shift
The “reading” of the code is every three bases (Reading Frame)
Ex: the red cat ate the rat
Frame shift – improper groupings of the bases
Ex: thr edc ata tat her at
The “words” only make sense if “read” in this grouping of three.

31. Transcription
Process of making RNA from a DNA template.

32. Transcription Steps 1. RNA Polymerase Binding 2. Initiation
3. Elongation
4. Termination

33. RNA Polymerase
Enzyme for building RNA from RNA nucleotides.

34. Binding
Requires that the enzyme find the “proper” place on the DNA to attach and start transcription.

35. Binding Is a complicated process
Uses Promoter Regions on the DNA (upstream from the information for the protein)
Requires proteins called Transcription Factors.

37. TATA Box Short segment of T,A,T,A
Located 25 nucleotides upstream for the initiation site.
Recognition site for transcription factors to bind to the DNA.

39. Transcription Factors
Proteins that bind to DNA before RNA Polymerase.
Recognizes TATA box, attaches, and “flags” the spot for RNA Polymerase.

41. Transcription Initiation Complex
The complete assembly of transcription factors and RNA Polymerase bound to the promoter area of the DNA to be transcribed.

43. Initiation Actual unwinding of DNA to start RNA synthesis.
Requires Initiation Factors.

45. Elongation RNA Polymerase untwists DNA 1 turn at a time.
Exposes 10 DNA bases for pairing with RNA nucleotides.