1. Exploring the grammar and style of transitions in academic writing
Fanboys, SWABI, & THAMO
Exploring the grammar and style of transitions
in academic writing

2. These are from the test
Sheila doesn’t like doing homework. She hates studying for exams.
I want to get a good grade. I have to study.
Melanie was late. The teacher wasn’t angry.
Jody watched TV. She went to bed.

3. Common Mistakes
Sheila doesn’t like doing homework. She hates studying for exams.
Sheila doesn’t like doing homework, also she hates studying for exams.
Sheila doesn’t like doing homework, furthermore she hates studying for exams.

4. These are from the test I want to get a good grade. I have to study.
I want to get a good grade, therefore I have to study.
Because I want to get a good grade. I have to study.

5. These are from the test Melanie was late. The teacher wasn’t angry.
Melanie was late, however the teacher wasn’t angry.
The teacher wasn’t angry. Although Melanie was late.

6. These are from the test Jody watched TV. She went to bed.
Jody watched TV, then she went to bed.
(this is technically incorrect, but you might see it in your reading).

7. Fanboys – Coordinating conjunctions
For
And
Nor
But Or
Yet So
These are coordinating conjuctions. They are used to connect words, phrases, clauses, or sentences.

8. Fanboys All transitions in English have to be both: Logical
Grammatical
By ‘logical’ we mean the word you choose must accurately express the logical relationship between the elements you are joining.

9. FANBOYS – Logical Relationships
For – reason / ‘because’ (quite formal sounding)
And – addition / ‘also’ / ‘additionally’ / ‘furthermore’ / etc.
Nor – also not / the negative expression in the first clause also applies to the second clause
But – contrast / ‘however’ / etc.
Or – choice / but not / ‘otherwise’
Yet – expresses a contrast that is (at least somewhat) surprising
So – result / ‘therefore’

10. FANBOYS
In our class, you are not allowed to start sentences with FANBOYS. This does not mean that it is grammatically incorrect to start sentences with coordinating conjunctions, though. You will see it occasionally, but it is generally considered bad style to do it too often.

11. FANBOYS
I searched a collection of essays by British university students that comprises 6.9 million words.
‘And’ occurs 208,696 times in this collection (that’s just over 3% of the collection!)
‘And’ begins a sentence only 915 times (only 0.013%).
‘But’ occurs 15,262 times,
Only 1,330 of which are at the beginning of sentences.
‘So’ occurs 10,362 times,
Only 1,361 of which are at the beginning of sentences.

12. FANBOYS
These numbers demonstrate that although it is not grammatically incorrect to start sentences with FANBOYS, L1 English speakers do so very infrequently. Now, if we look at some samples of writing from students in Composition One …

13. Student Example #1
This student started 4 sentences with FANBOYS (and one with because, but we’ll talk about that later!)

14. This student also started 4 sentences with FANBOYS.
Student Example #2
This student also started 4 sentences with FANBOYS.

15. This student started 5 sentences with FANBOYS (and one with because)
Student Example #3
This student started 5 sentences with FANBOYS (and one with because)

16. I went home nd I ate lunch. . A , a
Basic Fix
I went home nd I ate lunch.
Coordinating conjunctions are used to join two independent clauses, forming a compound sentence.
. A
, a

17. She was hungry ut she didn’t eat. . B , b
Basic Fix
She was hungry ut she didn’t eat.
. B
, b

18. She was hungry. But she didn’t eat. However, she didn’t eat.
More advanced Fix
Use the transitional markers we have been studying.
She was hungry.
However, she didn’t eat.
But she didn’t eat.

19. She was hungry , however she didn’t eat. . But she didn’t eat.
But not …
She was hungry
‘However’ is not a coordinating conjunction, so we can’t use it to join two independent clauses in this way. We’ll see more about however soon …
, however she didn’t eat.
. But she didn’t eat.

20. She was hungry, but she didn’t eat.
The Grammar of Fanboys
When a coordinating conjunction is used to join two independent clauses, we separate them with a comma.
She was hungry, but she didn’t eat.
However, if the second clause is not independent (e.g. missing the subject of the verb) no comma is used.
She was hungry but didn’t eat.

21. Back to the test sentences
Can you see now why this is considered incorrect? (It’s not the comma!)
Jody watched TV, then she went to bed.
FANBOYS – ‘then’ is not a coordinating conjunction, so it cannot be used to join two independent clauses.
Some experts argue that ‘then’ can be used as a coordinating conjunction, but this is pretty hotly debated. My best advice is just don’t do it.

22. Back to the test sentences
We can fix it by adding a conjunction (‘then’ is an adverb):
Jody watched TV, then she went to bed.
Jody watched TV, and then she went to bed.
Jody watched TV and then went to bed.
We could also leave it as two sentences:
Jody watched TV. Then she went to bed.

23. SWABI – Subordinating conjunctions
Since When Although Because If etc. (There are far too many to list here!)
These are subordinating conjunctions.
They are placed at the beginning of a subordinate clause.
Another way of thinking about this is that when you use one of these words, the clause that follows becomes subordinate. Therefore, your sentence must also include an independent clause.

24. SWABI This sentence is fine by itself. It is an independent clause.
I am tired.
However, this does not make sense:
Because I am tired.
As soon as you add ‘because’ (or any subordinating conjunction), you transform it into a dependent clause.

25. SWABI – Common Mistake
It doesn’t matter if we have more context, the subordinate clause still cannot stand on its own.
I went home. Because I was tired.

26. SWABI – Common Mistake
Always remember that subordinating conjunctions do not connect clauses backwards across sentence boundaries. Independent clause. Subordinate clause I was hungry. Because I had no money for lunch. I was hungry because I had no money for lunch.

27. SWABI – Comma rule
If the subordinate clause is first in the sentence, it is followed by a comma. Subordinate clause , Independent clause Since I had no class this morning , I slept late. When she saw her mother , she smiled and waved. Although it was raining , you didn’t take an umbrella. Because he was late , he took a taxi instead of the bus. If you drink too much coffee , you might have trouble sleeping.

28. SWABI – Comma rule
If the subordinate clause follows the independent clause, no comma is used to separate them. Independent clause Subordinate clause I slept late since I had no class this morning She smiled and waved when she saw her mother. You didn’t take an umbrella although it was raining. He took a taxi instead of the bus because he was late. You might have trouble sleeping if you drink too much coffee.

29. SWABI - Types
We often categorize subordinating conjunctions by what kinds of information they introduce. Usually, we can summarize the whole clause as an answer to the question when, why, or under what circumstance (condition): Time clauses (answer when the main clause happens) are typically introduced by: when, whenever, while, as, since, after, before, until, as soon as, once, etc.

30. SWABI - TYPES
Time clause examples: Subordinate clause , Independent clause When I got home , I took a shower. After she ate dinner , she called her mom. While they played chess , they listened to music. Etc. [of course the clauses can be reversed: I took a shower when I got home.]

31. SWABI - Types
Reason/cause clauses are typically introduced by: Because, since, as Examples: Subordinate clause , Independent clause Because the clerk was tired , she entered the wrong price. Since it was raining , we decided to stay home. As everyone has arrived , we can begin.

32. SWABI - Types Conditional clauses are typically introduced by:
If *, when* (notice some of these words can be used to introduce different kinds of information)
Examples:
Subordinate clause , Independent clause
If you don’t brush your teeth , you could get cavities.
When you take your medicine , you will feel better.
*Conditionals can be very tricky and involve a lot more than just grammar!
*When is much more frequently used in time clauses!

33. SWABI - Types
Contrasting clauses are typically introduced by: Although, even though, though, [same meaning] Examples: Subordinate clause , Independent clause Although I was starving , I didn’t eat the pizza. Even though she was late , the professor wasn’t angry. Though I enjoy most Korean food , I really don’t like kimchi.

34. SWABI Logic
Be careful! You have to make sure you subordinate the correct clause or your sentence won’t make any sense.
Because the clerk was tired , she entered the wrong price.

35. Incorrect – Not logical
SWABI LOGIC
Incorrect – Not logical
Correct
Because the clerk entered the wrong price, she was tired. When she took a shower, she got home.
Because the clerk was tired, she entered the wrong price. She took a shower when she got home.

36. Thamo – conjunctive adverbs
Therefore However Also Moreover Otherwise
These are conjunctive adverbs.
They are not conjunctions.
Therefore, even though they can be used to join two independent clauses, the grammar is a bit different!

37. Conjunctive Adverbs – List
accordingly also besides consequently conversely finally furthermore hence
however indeed instead likewise meanwhile moreover nevertheless next
nonetheless otherwise similarly still subsequently then therefore thus
See:

38. THAMO – conjunctive adverbs
If you want to make a compound sentence with a conjunctive adverb, you must use a semi- colon (not a period) before it, and a comma immediately following it.
Independent clause ; conjunctive adverb, independent clause
The important difference between this structure and the FANBOYS method of joining two independent clauses is the punctuation.

39. A quick note on the Semi-colon
“stronger than a comma but not quite as divisive as a period.”* The semi-colon is used to join two independent clauses that are closely related. Do not use a semi-colon and a conjunction. Do not use a capital letter after the semi-colon unless the word is a proper noun or acronym. *

40. She was the most experienced applicant, therefore she was hired.
If you want to make a compound sentence with therefore, you must use a semi-colon (not a period) before it, and a comma immediately following it. You can also choose to start the next sentence with therefore.
She was the most experienced applicant, therefore she was hired.
She was the most experienced applicant; therefore, she was hired.
She was the most experienced applicant. Therefore, she was hired.

41. She was hungry, however she didn’t eat.
The same rules apply to however.
She was hungry, however she didn’t eat.
She was hungry; however, she didn’t eat.
She was hungry. However, she didn’t eat.

42. Another common way to use however in a sentence
This usage may be the cause of some confusion. It is possible to use however (and therefore, etc.) mid- sentence, but the meaning changes a bit. Here, it is an adverb (not conjunctive) used to emphasize what has is about to be said, and has a comma on either side.
It is Spring. The weather, however, is still quite cold.
It is Spring; however, the weather is still quite cold.
It is Spring. However, the weather is still quite cold.
It is Spring. The weather is still quite cold, however.
It is Spring however the weather is still quite cold.

43. Also
Sheila doesn’t like doing homework, also she doesn’t like studying for exams.
Sheila doesn’t like doing homework. Also, she doesn’t like studying for exams.
Sheila doesn’t like doing homework. She also doesn’t like studying for exams.
Sheila doesn’t like doing homework. She doesn’t like studying for exams, also.

44. Moreover
Part of the meaning of moreover is not always found in dictionaries. The information that moreover introduces is not just additional, it is considered to be more important. The essay was very boring. Moreover, it was full of grammatical errors. The essay was very boring; moreover, it was full of grammatical errors. The essay was very boring. It was, moreover, full of grammatical errors. She gets excellent grades. Moreover, she enjoys studying. She said that she did not steal my wallet. She claimed, moreover, that we had never even met.

45. Otherwise
We use otherwise to express a kind of conditional relationship. Specifically, a bad thing will happen unless something else happens. Brush your teeth. He needs to study.
Otherwise, you might get cavities.
Otherwise, he might not pass the exam.

46. Common Mistakes From the Exam Revisited
Rewrite these sentences using appropriate transitions (this time you can use FANBOYS if you like). Try at least three different transitions for each.
Sheila doesn’t like doing homework. She hates studying for exams.
I want to get a good grade. I have to study.
Melanie was late. The teacher wasn’t angry.
Jody watched TV. She went to bed.