1. Exploring the grammar and style of transitions in academic writing
Fanboys, SWABI, & THAMO
Exploring the grammar and style of transitions
in academic writing

2. These are from the test
Sheila doesn’t like doing homework. She hates studying for exams.
I want to get a good grade. I have to study.
Melanie was late. The teacher wasn’t angry.
Jody watched TV. She went to bed.

3. Common Mistakes
Sheila doesn’t like doing homework. She hates studying for exams.
Sheila doesn’t like doing homework, also she hates studying for exams.
Sheila doesn’t like doing homework, furthermore she hates studying for exams.

4. These are from the test I want to get a good grade. I have to study.
I want to get a good grade, therefore I have to study.
Because I want to get a good grade. I have to study.

5. These are from the test Melanie was late. The teacher wasn’t angry.
Melanie was late, however the teacher wasn’t angry.
The teacher wasn’t angry. Although Melanie was late.

6. These are from the test Jody watched TV. She went to bed.
Jody watched TV, then she went to bed.
(this is technically incorrect, but you might see it in your reading).

7. Fanboys – Coordinating conjunctions
For
And
Nor
But Or
Yet So
These are coordinating conjuctions. They are used to connect words, phrases, clauses, or sentences of equal rank

8. FANBOYS
In our class, you are not allowed to start sentences with FANBOYS. This does not mean that it is grammatically incorrect to start sentences with coordinating conjunctions, though. You will see it occasionally, but it is generally considered bad style to do it too often.

9. FANBOYS
I searched a collection of essays by British university students that comprises 6.9 million words.
‘And’ occurs 208,696 times in this collection (that’s just over 3% of the collection!)
‘And’ begins a sentence only 915 times (only 0.013%).
‘But’ occurs 15,262 times,
Only 1,330 of which are at the beginning of sentences.
‘So’ occurs 10,362 times,
Only 1,361 of which are at the beginning of sentences.

10. FANBOYS
These numbers demonstrate that although it is not grammatically incorrect to start sentences with FANBOYS, L1 English speakers do so very infrequently. Now, if we look at some samples of writing from students in Composition One …

11. Student Example #1
This student started 4 sentences with FANBOYS (and one with because, but we’ll talk about that later!)

12. This student also started 4 sentences with FANBOYS.
Student Example #2
This student also started 4 sentences with FANBOYS.

13. This student started 5 sentences with FANBOYS (and one with because)
Student Example #3
This student started 5 sentences with FANBOYS (and one with because)

14. I went home nd I ate lunch. . A , a
Basic Fix
I went home nd I ate lunch.
Coordinating conjunctions are used to join two independent clauses, forming a compound sentence.
. A
, a

15. She was hungry ut she didn’t eat. . B , b
Basic Fix
She was hungry ut she didn’t eat.
. B
, b

16. She was hungry. But she didn’t eat. However, she didn’t eat.
More advanced Fix
Use the transitional markers we have been studying.
She was hungry.
However, she didn’t eat.
But she didn’t eat.

17. She was hungry , however she didn’t eat. . But she didn’t eat.
But not …
She was hungry
‘However’ is not a coordinating conjunction, so we can’t use it to join two independent clauses in this way. We’ll see more about however soon …
, however she didn’t eat.
. But she didn’t eat.

18. The Grammar of Fanboys
When a coordinating conjunction is used to join two independent clauses, we separate them with a comma.
She was hungry, but she didn’t eat.
However, if the second clause is not independent (e.g. missing the subject of the verb) no comma is used.
She was hungry but didn’t eat.

19. Back to the test sentences
Can you see now why this is considered incorrect? (It’s not the comma!)
Jody watched TV, then she went to bed.
FANBOYS – ‘then’ is not a coordinating conjunction, so it cannot be used to join two independent clauses.
Some experts argue that ‘then’ can be used as a coordinating conjunction, but this is pretty hotly debated. My best advice is just don’t do it.

20. Back to the test sentences
We can fix it by adding a conjunction (‘then’ is an adverb):
Jody watched TV, then she went to bed.
Jody watched TV, and then she went to bed.
Jody watched TV and then went to bed.

21. SWABI – Subordinating conjunctions
Since When Although Because If etc. (There are far too many to list here!)
These are subordinating conjunctions.
They are placed at the beginning of a subordinate clause.
Another way of thinking about this is that when you use one of these words, the clause that follows becomes subordinate. Therefore, your sentence must also include an independent clause.

22. Subordinating Conjunctions
It is very common to start sentences with subordinating conjunctions.
I want to get a good grade. I have to study.
Because I want to get a good grade, I have to study.
[notice the comma].
We can use subordinating conjunctions to join the clauses in the middle.
I have to study because I want to get a good grade.
[no comma is necessary, although some writers have started using them for emphasis]

23. SWABI - Types
We often categorize subordinating conjunctions by what kinds of information they introduce. Usually, we can summarize the whole clause as an answer to the question when, why, or under what circumstance (condition): Time clauses (answer when the main clause happens) are typically introduced by: when, whenever, while, as, since, after, before, until, as soon as, once, etc.

24. SWABI - TYPES
Time clause examples: Subordinate clause , Independent clause When I got home , I took a shower. After she ate dinner , she called her mom. While they played chess , they listened to music. Etc.

25. SWABI - Types
Reason/cause clauses are typically introduced by: Because, since, as Subordinate clause , Independent clause Because the clerk was tired , she entered the wrong price. Since it was raining , we decided to stay home. As everyone has arrived , we can begin.

26. SWABI - Types Conditional clauses are typically introduced by:
If *, when (notice some of these words can be used to introduce different kinds of information)
Subordinate clause , Independent clause
If you don’t brush your teeth , you could get cavities.
When you take your medicine , you will feel better.
* Conditionals can be very tricky and involve a lot more than just grammar!

27. SWABI - Types
Contrasting clauses are typically introduced by: Although, even though, though, Subordinate clause , Independent clause Although I was starving , I didn’t eat the pizza. Even though she was late , the professor wasn’t angry. Though I enjoy most Korean food , I really don’t like kimchi.

28. SWABI – Comma rule
If the subordinate clause is first in the sentence, it is followed by a comma. Subordinate clause , Independent clause Since I had no class this morning , I slept late. When she saw her mother , she smiled and waved. Although it was raining , you didn’t take an umbrella. Because he was late , he took a taxi instead of the bus. If you drink too much coffee , you might have trouble sleeping.

29. SWABI – Comma rule
If the subordinate clause follows the independent clause, no comma is used to separate them. Independent clause Subordinate clause I slept late since I had no class this morning She smiled and waved when she saw her mother. You didn’t take an umbrella although it was raining. He took a taxi instead of the bus because he was late. You might have trouble sleeping if you drink too much coffee.

30. SWABI – Common Mistake
Always remember that subordinating conjunctions do not connect clauses backwards across sentence boundaries. Independent clause. Subordinate clause I was hungry. Because I had no money for lunch. I was hungry because I had no money for lunch.

31. SWABI Logic
Be careful! You have to make sure you subordinate the correct clause or your sentence won’t make any sense.
Because the clerk was tired , she entered the wrong price.

32. Incorrect – Not logical
SWABI LOGIC
Incorrect – Not logical
Correct
The clerk entered the wrong price because she was tired. When she took a shower, she got home.
Because the clerk was tired, she entered the wrong price. She took a shower when she got home.

33. Thamo – conjunctive adverbs
Therefore However Also Moreover Otherwise
These are conjunctive adverbs (not conjunctions).
They are used to join two independent clauses, separated by a semi-colon, or to begin a sentence.
More conjunctive adverbs: accordingly, also, besides, consequently, conversely, finally, furthermore, hence, however, indeed, instead, likewise, meanwhile, moreover, nevertheless, next, nonetheless, otherwise, similarly, still, subsequently, then, therefore, thus

34. THAMO – conjunctive adverbs
If you want to make a compound sentence with a conjunctive adverb, you must use a semi-colon (not a period) before it, and a comma immediately following it.

35. She was the most experienced applicant, therefore she was hired.
If you want to make a compound sentence with therefore, you must use a semi-colon (not a period) before it, and a comma immediately following it. You can also choose to start the next sentence with therefore.
She was the most experienced applicant, therefore she was hired.
She was the most experienced applicant; therefore she was hired.
She was the most experienced applicant. Therefore, she was hired.

36. She was hungry, however she didn’t eat.
The same rules apply to however.
She was hungry, however she didn’t eat.
She was hungry; however, she didn’t eat.
She was hungry. However, she didn’t eat.

37. Another common way to use however in a sentence
This usage may be the cause of some confusion. It is possible to use however (and therefore, etc.) mid-sentence, but the meaning changes a bit. Here, it is an adverb used to emphasize what has just been said, and has a comma on either side.
It is Spring. The weather, however, is still quite cold.
It is Spring. However, the weather is still quite cold.
It is Spring. The weather is still quite cold, however.
It is Spring however the weather is still quite cold.

38. Also
Sheila doesn’t like doing homework, also she doesn’t like studying for exams.
Sheila doesn’t like doing homework. Also, she doesn’t like studying for exams.
Sheila doesn’t like doing homework. She also doesn’t like studying for exams.
Sheila doesn’t like doing homework. She doesn’t like studying for exams, also.

39. Moreover
Part of the meaning of moreover is not always found in dictionaries. The information that moreover introduces is not just additional, it is considered to be more important. The essay was very boring. Moreover, it was full of statistical errors. She gets excellent grades. Moreover, she enjoys studying. It can also be used to emphasize: She said that she did not steal my wallet. She claimed, moreover, that we had never even met.

40. Otherwise
We use otherwise to express a kind of conditional relationship. Specifically, a bad thing will happen unless something else happens. Brush your teeth. He needs to study.
Otherwise, you might get cavities.
Otherwise, he might not pass the exam.

41. Common Mistakes From the Exam Revisited
Rewrite these sentences using appropriate transitions (this time you can use FANBOYS if you like). Try at least three different transitions for each.
Sheila doesn’t like doing homework. She hates studying for exams.
I want to get a good grade. I have to study.
Melanie was late. The teacher wasn’t angry.
Jody watched TV. She went to bed.