1. Behavioural explanation for the acquisition of phobias
4.1.4 Psychopathology:
The behavioural approach to explaining phobias: the two-process model, including classical and operant conditioning

2. Getting you thinking  engage :
Outline of the behavioural approach AO1)
Draw around your hand
Label 1-5
Write one fact/point you can remember from your own knowledge/approaches lessons 3 4 2 5 1

3. What is the Behaviourist Approach?
Founded by JB Watson in 1915, the behaviourist approach studies observed behavioural responses of humans and animals.
The behaviourist approach believes we learn to behave in response to our environment, either by stimulus-response association, or as a result of reinforcement.
Important contributors to the behaviourist approach are Ivan Pavlov, with his theory of classical conditioning, and B.F. Skinner, and his work into operant conditioning.
Ivan Pavlov
B.F. Skinner

4. Conditioning
Conditioning refers to a process of shaping or changing a behaviour
The two most common behavioural explanations for the acquisition of phobias are classical conditioning and operant conditioning
Classical conditioning
A basic form of learning in which a neutral stimulus is repeatedly paired with another stimulus known as the unconditioned response. The neutral stimulus becomes associated with the conditioned stimulus and elicits the same response.

5. Recap attachment
UCS
UCR NS CS CR

6. + Step 1 Dog drools = UCR Food = UCS Step 2 Bell = NS Food = UCS
UCR = Unconditioned response
Food = UCS
UCS = unconditioned stimulus
Step 2 +
Bell = NS
NS = neutral stimulus
Food = UCS
UCS = unconditioned stimulus
Dog drools = UCR
UCR = Unconditioned response
Step 3
Bell = CS
CS = conditioned stimulus
Dog drools = CR
CR = Conditioned Response

7. ‘Little Albert’
Neutral stimulus (NS)  no fear of rats (before conditioning)
A loud bang (UCS)  causes fear and anxiety (UCR) (before conditioning)
rat (CS) and loud bang (UCS)  fear (UCR) (during conditioning)
rat (CS)  fear (CR) (evidence of conditioning)

8. ‘Little Albert’ Noise Fear UCS UCR Rat Noise Fear UCS + NS UCR Rat

9. ‘Little Albert’

10. How this can cause a phobia…..
Classical Conditioning:
We learn to associate one thing with another e.g.
Child on mum’s knee
Child sees spider (NS) – unafraid – doesn’t know what spider is!
Mum sees spider
Mum screams and drops baby!
Baby associates spider with fear and lump on head (UCS)!
Baby sees spider
Baby cries! (CR)

11. Work it out....
A child is afraid of spiders. One day he is in a lift and notices a spider. Now he is afraid of lifts.
Unconditioned stimulus (UCS)?
NS= lift
UCS=Spider
UCR= Fear
CS=Lift
CR=fear
Neutral stimulus (NS)?
Unconditioned response (UCR)?
Conditioned stimulus (CS)?
Conditioned response(CR)?

12. Operant conditioning
Operant conditioning = changing a behaviour because of a reward or for avoidance
Once a fear is established, the individual then avoids the object or situation that produces the fear
This in turn reduces the anxiety
It also strengthens the fear and makes it more likely that this object/situation will be avoided in the future.

13. The two-process model
In his two-process model of phobia acquisition, Mowrer suggests that phobias are acquired as a result of classical conditioning and maintained by operant conditioning.
A person who is terrified of spiders is likely to run away when they see one. The escape and consequent reduction of fear acts as a negative reinforcer, increasing the likelihood that they will continue to avoid spiders in future.

14. The two-process model
In this way, the phobia is maintained. When an individual avoids a situation which is unpleasant, the behaviour results in a pleasant consequence which means the behaviour is likely to be repeated.
Mowrer suggested that whenever we avoid a phobic stimulus we successfully escape the fear and anxiety that we would have suffered if we had entered its presence or remained there.
This reduction in fear reinforces the avoidance behaviour and so the phobia is maintained.

15. Review Has everyone with a phobia had a traumatic/bad experience?
Why are the most common phobias those of snakes/spiders/heights/water?
A phobia is initially acquired through association. However, this doesn’t explain why individuals continue to feel fearful, nor does it explain why individuals avoid the feared object.

16. What is missing?

17. In the classic study of phobias, Watson and Rayner 1920) aimed to demonstrate that an irrational fear could be induced by use of classical conditioning.
They used a placid baby boy, referred to as ‘Little Albert’ who, at 9 months, showed no fear of a laboratory white rat. At age 11 months they carried the following procedure aimed to induce fear. Whenever the rat was placed in Albert’s lap, Watson made a loud noise by banging together two steel bars behind Albert’s back. He did this a total of 7 times.
In this procedure, the loud noise is an unconditioned stimulus and Albert’s response to it (crying) is an unconditioned response. Before conditioning the rat was a neutral stimulus.

18. By the third trial Albert showed fear whenever he saw the rat
By the third trial Albert showed fear whenever he saw the rat. The rat was now a conditioned stimulus and Albert’s fear of it was a conditioned response.
In his two-process model of phobia acquisition, Mowrer suggests that phobias are acquired as a result of classical conditioning and maintained by operant
conditioning. A person who is terrified of spiders is likely to run away when they see one. The escape and consequent reduction of fear acts as a negative
reinforcer, increasing the likelihood that they will continue to avoid spiders in future. In this way, the phobia is maintained. When an individual avoids a situation which is unpleasant, the behaviour results in a pleasant consequence which means the behaviour is likely to be repeated.
Mowrer suggested that whenever we avoid a phobic stimulus we successfully escape the fear and anxiety that we would have suffered if we had entered its presence or remained there. This reduction in fear reinforces the avoidance behaviour and so the phobia is maintained.

19. The two-process model
The two-process explanation for phobias can explain the acquisition and maintenance of phobias which have been associated with an unpleasant event and can therefore account for some unusual phobias such as button or zip phobia.
It does not, however, account for the fact that some phobias are far more frequent than others in the general population (despite the fact that there is no evidence that they have been more frequently associated with aversive events).
It would appear that certain classes of stimuli (those dangerous to pre-technical humans, such as snakes and other animals) are more easily conditioned than others.
A good explanatory theory needs to take account of factors such as evolution and biological preparedness in addition to classical and operant conditioning

20. Strengths
Limations
Convincing explanations of some disorders
One limitation of the BM is that only behaviour is considered. The thoughts and feelings of cognition are not taken into consideration. However, a human being is much more than a bundle of behaviours, and thinking and feelings need to be considered.
Lends itself to scientific validation.
Behaviourism is based upon observable behaviours, so it is easier to quantify and collect data and information when conducting research.
All nurture (learning experiences), no nature (biological or genetic factors)
Focuses on behaviour: overcomes the ethical issues raised by the medical model.
Reductionist – explains complex human behaviour in terms of simple learning principles.
Focuses on functioning: Behavioural model led to the definition of abnormality (FFA)
Deterministic – no room for conscious choice. Human behaviour is simply a results of stimuli, rewards and punishment.

21. Evaluating the behavioural explanation for phobias
Read the evaluative comments on this approach on page 145 and include these in your notes

22. As its name suggests, the two-process theory suggests that there are two processes responsible for the acquisition and maintenance of phobias. What are these processes? (2 marks)
Classical conditioning for acquisition, operant conditioning for maintenance.
2. What major influence on human behaviour does Bouton (2007) suggest causes some phobias to be more frequent than others? (1 mark)
Evolution.
3. What is the name of the theory suggested by Seligman (1970) that takes account of this factor? (1 mark)
Biological preparedness.
4. Why is this explanation more plausible in some cases than the two-process theory? (2 marks)
Because it explains why phobias for things that were once inherently dangerous are more common than phobias for things that have only been dangerous in modern times even though the latter may be more likely to be associated with an unpleasant event.

23. 5. Write a paragraph evaluating the two-process theory taking account of both positive and negative factors.(6 marks)
The two-process explanation for phobias can explain the acquisition and maintenance of phobias which have been associated with an unpleasant
event and can therefore account for some unusual phobias such as button or zip phobia. It does not, however, account for the fact that some phobias are far more frequent than others in the general population (despite the fact that there is no evidence that they have been more frequently associated with aversive events). It would appear that certain classes of stimuli (those dangerous to pretechnical humans, such as snakes and other animals) are more easily conditioned than others. A good explanatory theory needs to take account of factors such as evolution and biological preparedness in addition to classical and operant conditioning.

24. Scenario 1
Harry has a phobia of swans. As a child he was bitten by a swan whilst feeding it bread. Harry feels anxious when he thinks about swans and becomes very afraid whenever he sees one close up. He now avoids swans.

25. Scenario 2
Sarah suffers from agoraphobia. She is a keen A level student but is struggling to attend college because of the anxiety she suffers when attempting to leave the house in the morning. Her phobia began shortly after being mugged.