1. Study Area 8
Development across the life span

2. Development Across the Life Span
Developmental psychology is the scientific study of how and why human beings change over the course of their life. Originally concerned with infants and children, the field has expanded to include adolescence, adult development, aging, and the entire lifespan.
Lifespan development is the name psychologists have given to the physical and cognitive changes that occur throughout a person's life
Human development: the scientific study of the changes that occur in people as they age from conception until death

3. Developmental Research Designs

4. Developmental Research Designs
Longitudinal design: research design in which one participant or group of participants is studied over a long period of time
cohort effect: impact on development when a group of people share common time period or life experience

5. Longitudinal Design Tested at 1 year (Time 1) Again at 4 years

6. Longitudinal Design Tested at 1 year (Time 1) Again at 4 years
Compare
Compare
Tested at 1 year
(Time 1)
Again at 4 years
(Time 2)
Again at 7 years
(Time 3)
Same Participants
Different Times

7. Developmental Research Designs
Cross-sectional design: research design in which several different age groups of participants are studied at one particular point in time
Cross-sequential design: research design in which participants are first studied by means of a cross-sectional design but also followed and assessed over time.

8. Nature versus Nurture
Nature: the influence of our inherited characteristics on our personality, physical growth, intellectual growth, and social interactions
Nurture: the influence of the environment on personality, physical growth, intellectual growth, and social interactions
Behavioral genetics: focuses on nature vs. nurture

9. Genetics and Development
Genetics: the science of inherited traits
behavioral genetics
DNA (deoxyribonucleic acid): special molecule that contains the genetic material of the organism

10. DNA Molecule
In this model of a DNA molecule, the two strands making up the sides of the “twisted ladder” are composed of sugars and phosphates. The “rungs” of the ladder that link the two strands are amines. Amines contain the genetic codes for building the proteins that make up organic life.

11. Genetics and Development
Gene: section of DNA having a certain pattern of chemical elements
dominant: referring to a gene that actively controls the expression of a trait
recessive: referring to a gene that only influences the expression of a trait when paired with an identical gene

12. Genetics and Development
Chromosome: tightly wound strand of genetic material or DNA
Chromosome disorders include Down syndrome, Klinefelter’s syndrome, and Turner’s syndrome
Genetic disorders include PKU, cystic fibrosis, sickle cell anemia, and Tay-Sachs disease

13. Genetic defects and chromosomal abnormalities are both sometimes called "genetic conditions" or "genetic disorders," but the difference lies in how much of the DNA is actually affected.
A chromosomal abnormality affects an entire chromosome and many or all of the genes that make it up. The most common chromosomal abnormalities are duplications, where an individual has an extra copy of a chromosome. 
When differentiating genetic defects from chromosomal abnormalities, it can be less confusing to call genetic defects "single-gene defects" because they involve mutations in individual genes. Though the affected gene may not give proper instructions, the individual's overall chromosome number and structure are normal.

14. Conception Conception: the moment at which a female becomes pregnant
Ovum: the female sex cell, or egg
Fertilization: the union of the ovum and sperm
Zygote: cell resulting from the uniting of the ovum and sperm; divides into many cells, eventually forming the baby

15. Conception and Twins Monozygotic twins: identical twins
formed when one zygote splits into two separate masses of cells, each of which develops into a separate embryo
Dizygotic twins: often called fraternal twins
occur when two eggs get fertilized by two different sperm, resulting in the development of two zygotes in the uterus at the same time

16. Monozygotic and Dizygotic Twins Because identical twins come from one fertilized egg (zygote), they are called monozygotic. Fraternal twins, who come from two different fertilized eggs, are called dizygotic.

17. Periods of Pregnancy
The three periods of prenatal development (not trimesters).

18. Periods of Pregnancy
Germinal period: first two weeks after fertilization, during which the zygote moves down to the uterus and begins to implant in the lining
embryo is the name for the developing organism from two weeks to eight weeks after fertilization

19. Periods of Pregnancy
Embryonic period: the period from two to eight weeks after fertilization, during which the major organs and structures of the organism develop
critical periods: times during which certain environmental influences can have an impact on the development of the infant
teratogen: any factor that can cause a birth defect

22. Periods of Pregnancy
Fetal period: the time from about eight weeks after conception until the birth of the child
fetus: name for the developing organism from eight weeks after fertilization to the birth of the baby
viability: the point at which it is possible for an infant to survive outside the womb, usually about weeks

23. Physical Development in Infancy and Childhood
Infants are born with 5 reflexes that help them survive
grasping
Moro (startle)
rooting
stepping
sucking

24. grasping reflex startle reflex aka Moro reflex rooting reflex
Infant Survival Reflexes Shown here are (a) grasping reflex; (b) startle reflex (also known as the Moro reflex); (c) rooting reflex (when you touch a baby‘s cheek it will turn toward your hand, open its mouth, and search for the nipple);
grasping reflex
startle reflex
aka Moro reflex
rooting reflex

25. stepping reflex sucking reflex
Infant Survival Reflexes (d) stepping reflex; and (e) sucking reflex. These infant reflexes can be used to check the health of an infant’s nervous system. If a reflex is absent or abnormal, it may indicate brain damage or some other neurological problem.
stepping reflex
sucking reflex

26. Six Motor Milestones Shown here are (a) raising head and chest - 2 to 4 months, (b) rolling over—2 to 5 months, (c) sitting up with support—4 to 6 months,
raising head & chest
rolling over
sitting up with support

27. sitting up without support crawling walking
Motor Milestones (d) sitting up without support—6 to 7 months, (e) crawling—7 to 8 months, and (f) walking—8 to 18 months. The motor milestones develop as the infant gains greater voluntary control over the muscles in its body, typically from the top of the body downward. This pattern is seen in the early control of the neck muscles and the much later development of control of the legs and feet.
sitting up without support
crawling
walking

28. Physical Development in Infancy and Childhood
The senses, except for vision, are fairly well developed at birth
Brain development
synaptic pruning or axon pruning is the process of synapse elimination that occurs between early childhood and the onset of puberty in many mammals, including humans. Pruning starts near the time of birth and is completed by the time of sexual maturation in humans.

29. Cognitive Development
Cognitive development: the development of thinking, problem solving, and memory
Jean Piaget: developed a four-stage theory of cognitive development based on observation of infants and children
schemes: mental concepts formed by children as they experience new situations and events

30. Jean Piaget

31. Piaget’s Stage Theory
Sensorimotor stage: Piaget’s first stage of cognitive development, in which the infant uses its senses and motor abilities to interact with objects in the environment
The first stage of Piaget's theory lasts from birth to approximately age two and is centered on the infant trying to make sense of the world.
object permanence: the knowledge that an object exists even when it is not in sight

32. Piaget’s Stage Theory
Preoperational stage: Piaget’s second stage of cognitive development, in which the preschool child learns to use language as a means of exploring the world
egocentrism: the inability to see the world through anyone else’s eyes
centration: in Piaget’s theory, the tendency of a young child to focus only on one feature of an object while ignoring other relevant features

33. Piaget’s Stage Theory Preoperational Stage (cont’d)
conservation: in Piaget’s theory, the ability to understand that simply changing the appearance of an object does not change the object’s nature
irreversibility: in Piaget’s theory, the inability of the young child to mentally reverse an action

34. Conservation Experiment A typical conservation task consists of pouring equal amounts of water into two glasses of the same size and shape. When the water from one of these glasses is poured into a taller, narrower glass, children who cannot yet conserve tend to focus (centrate) on the height of the water in the second glass, assuming that the second glass now has more water than the first one. In the second example, pennies are laid out in two equal lines. When the pennies in the top line are spaced out, the child who cannot yet conserve will centrate on the top line and assume that there are actually more pennies in that line.

35. Piaget’s Stage Theory
Concrete operations stage: third stage of cognitive development, in which the school-aged child becomes capable of logical thought processes but is not yet capable of abstract thinking
Formal operations: Piaget’s last stage of cognitive development, in which the adolescent becomes capable of abstract thinking

36. Vygotsky’s Theory
Vygotsky’s sociocultural theory of human learning describes learning as a social process and the origination of human intelligence in society or culture. The major theme of Vygotsky’s theoretical framework is that social interaction plays a fundamental role in the development of cognition.
Scaffolding: process in which a more skilled learner gives help to a less skilled learner, then reduces the amount of help as the less skilled learner becomes more capable

37. Vygotsky’s Theory
Zone of proximal development (ZPD): the difference between what a child can do alone and what that child can do with the help of a teacher
private speech: Vygotsky viewed this as a way for a child to “think out loud” and advance cognitively

38. Language Development Language development allows children to:
think in words rather than images
ask questions
communicate their needs
form concepts
Child-directed speech: children attend to higher-pitched, repetitious, sing-song speech

39. Stages of Language Development
Cooing
Babbling
One-Word Speech (Holophrases)
Telegraphic Speech
Whole sentences

40. Autism Spectrum Disorder
Autism spectrum disorder (ASD) is a group of developmental disabilities that can cause significant social, communication and behavioral challenges. 
myths relating ASD to vaccines have been debunked

41. Autism Spectrum Disorder
People with ASD often have problems with social, emotional, and communication skills. They might repeat certain behaviors and might not want change in their daily activities. Many people with ASD also have different ways of learning, paying attention, or reacting to things. Signs of ASD begin during early childhood and typically last throughout a person’s life.
Children or adults with ASD might:
not point at objects to show interest (for example, not point at an airplane flying over)
not look at objects when another person points at them
have trouble relating to others or not have an interest in other people at all
avoid eye contact and want to be alone
have trouble understanding other people’s feelings or talking about their own feelings

42. Autism Spectrum Disorder
Children or adults with ASD might:
prefer not to be held or cuddled, or might cuddle only when they want to
appear to be unaware when people talk to them, but respond to other sounds
be very interested in people, but not know how to talk, play, or relate to them
repeat or echo words or phrases said to them, or repeat words or phrases in place of normal language
have trouble expressing their needs using typical words or motions
not play “pretend” games (for example, not pretend to “feed” a doll)
repeat actions over and over again
have trouble adapting when a routine changes
have unusual reactions to the way things smell, taste, look, feel, or sound
lose skills they once had (for example, stop saying words they were using)

43. Temperament
Temperament: behavioral characteristics that are fairly well established at birth
easy: regular, adaptable, and happy
difficult: irregular, nonadaptable, and irritable
slow to warm up: need to adjust gradually to change
Temperament influences how a child behaves toward individuals and objects around them and how the environment affects them.  This concept also indicates that many behavioral tendencies are inborn – not the result of faulty parenting. 

44. Attachment
Attachment: the emotional bond between an infant and the primary caregiver
secure: willing to explore; upset when mother departs, but easily soothed upon her return
avoidant: unattached; explores without “touching base”

45. Attachment Attachment (cont’d)
ambivalent: insecurely attached; upset when mother leaves and then angry with mother upon her return
disorganized-disoriented: insecurely attached and sometimes abused or neglected; child seems fearful, dazed, and depressed

46. Self-Concept Self-concept is the image you have of yourself
based on your interactions with the important people in your life.

47. Erikson’s Stages
Trust versus mistrust: first stage of personality development
the infant’s basic sense of trust or mistrust develops as a result of consistent or inconsistent care
Autonomy versus shame and doubt: second stage of personality development
the toddler strives for physical independence

48. Erikson’s Stages
Initiative versus guilt: third stage of personality development
the preschool-aged child strives for emotional and psychological independence and attempts to satisfy curiosity about the world
Industry versus inferiority: fourth stage of personality development
the adolescent strives for a sense of competence and self-esteem

49. 1st four stages of development
Derived from Erikson, 1950

50. Erikson’s Fifth Stage
Identity versus role confusion: fifth stage of personality development
the adolescent must find a consistent sense of self
Parent–teen conflict

51. Erikson’s Stages
Intimacy versus isolation : an emotional and psychological closeness that is based on the ability to trust, share, and care, while still maintaining a sense of self 6

52. Erikson’s Stages
Generativity versus stagnation : providing guidance to one’s children or the next generation, or contributing to the well-being of the next generation through career or volunteering
parenting styles
Authoritarian - very strict and controlling
Authoritative - good
Permissive - bad
Optional Video 7

53. Erikson’s Stages
Ego integrity versus despair : sense of wholeness that comes from having lived a full life and the ability to let go of regrets; the final completion of the ego 8

54. LO 8.9 Physical and Cognitive Changes during Adulthood and Aging
Last 3 stages of development
LO 8.9 Physical and Cognitive Changes during Adulthood and Aging
Derived from Erikson, 1950

55. Freud’s stage theory
In Freudian psychology, psychosexual development is a central element of the psychoanalytic sexual drive theory, that human beings, from birth, possess an instinctual libido (sexual energy) that develops in five stages.

56. Puberty and Adolescence
Adolescence: the period of life from about age thirteen to the early twenties, during which a young person is no longer physically a child but is not yet an independent, self-supporting adult
Puberty: the physical changes that occur in the body as sexual development reaches its peak
period of about four years

57. Egocentric Thinking Formal operations may begin to emerge
Piaget’s final stage
thinking of hypothetical situations
egocentric thought remains
Egocentrism refers to the child's inability to see a situation from another person's point of view. According to Piaget, the egocentric child assumes that other people see, hear, and feel exactly the same as the child does.

58. Egocentric Thinking
Personal fable: young people believe themselves to be unique and protected from harm
Imaginary audience: young people believe that other people are just as concerned about the adolescent’s thoughts and characteristics as they themselves are

59. Kohlberg’s Levels of Morality
Preconventional morality: behavior is governed by the consequences of the behavior
Conventional morality: behavior is governed by conforming to society’s norms of behavior
Postconventional morality: behavior is governed by moral principles that have been decided on by the individual
may be in disagreement with accepted social norms

61. Physical Changes and Aging
Adulthood begins in the early twenties and ends with old age and death
divided into young adulthood, middle adulthood, and late adulthood
Emerging adulthood is proposed as a new conception of development for the period from the late teens through the twenties, with a focus on ages

62. Physical Changes and Aging
Women experience a physical decline in the reproductive system called the climacteric
ends at about age fifty with menopause: the cessation of ovulation and menstrual cycles and the end of a woman’s reproductive capability
Andropause: gradual changes in the sexual hormones and reproductive system of males The reduction is rarely noticeable in men younger than 60.

63. Physical Changes and Aging
Increase in health problems
Decrease in reaction time
Challenges in memory most likely caused by stress and high volumes of information to maintain

64. Theories of Aging
Cellular clock theory: based on the idea that cells only have so many times that they can reproduce
once that limit is reached, damaged cells begin to accumulate
Wear-and-tear theory: as time goes by, repeated use and abuse of the body’s tissues cause it to be unable to repair all the damage

65. Theories of Aging
Free radical theory: oxygen molecules with an unstable electron move around the cell, damaging cell structures as they go
Activity theory: theory of adjustment to aging that assumes older people are happier if they remain active in some way, such as volunteering or developing a hobby

66. Stages of Death and Dying

67. The END – Study Area 8
Development across the life span