1. CHAPTER 12 MOTIVATION
Copyright  2005 McGraw-Hill Australia Pty Ltd PPTs t/a Management: A Pacific Rim Focus 4e by Bartol, Tein, Matthews, Martin

2. MOTIVATION
Defined as the psychological forces within a person that determine:
1) direction of behavior in an organization;
2) the effort or how hard people work;
3) the persistence displayed in meeting goals.
Intrinsic Motivation: behavior performed for its own sake.
Motivation comes from performing the work.
Extrinsic Motivation: behavior performed to acquire rewards.
Motivation source is the consequence of an action.
Our inner needs (food, companionship, growth) and cognitions (knowledge and thoughts about effort we might expend) lead to various behaviours. Assuming these behaviours are suitable, they may lead to rewards. In turn the rewards help reinforce our behaviours, fulfill needs and influence cognitions about links between our behaviour and possible rewards. (See Figure 11.2 on page 367 of text.)
Further discussion may be found on page 366.
Copyright  2005 McGraw-Hill Australia Pty Ltd PPTs t/a Management: A Pacific Rim Focus 4e by Bartol, Tein, Matthews, Martin

3. NATURE OF MOTIVATION = X X environmental performance ability
conditions
ability
motivation X X =
The challenge for management is to provide working conditions that nurture and support individual motivation to work to company goals.
Further discussion may be found on page 366.
Copyright  2005 McGraw-Hill Australia Pty Ltd PPTs t/a Management: A Pacific Rim Focus 4e by Bartol, Tein, Matthews, Martin

4. NEEDS THEORIES Hierarchy-of-needs theory (Maslow)
Two-factor theory (Herzberg)
ERG theory (Aldefer)
Acquired-needs theory (McClelland)
Needs theories argue that we behave as we do because we are attempting to fulfill internal needs. These content motivation theories specify what motivates people (i.e. the content of needs).
Further discussion may be found on page 367.
Copyright  2005 McGraw-Hill Australia Pty Ltd PPTs t/a Management: A Pacific Rim Focus 4e by Bartol, Tein, Matthews, Martin

5. MASLOW THEORY Self-actualisation: developing capabilities and
reaching full potential
Esteem: positive self-image and have contributions valued
Belongingness: desire to affiliate with and be accepted by others
Pages
Safety: desire to be safe, secure, free from threats
Physiological: basic ; food, shelter, water
Copyright  2005 McGraw-Hill Australia Pty Ltd PPTs t/a Management: A Pacific Rim Focus 4e by Bartol, Tein, Matthews, Martin

6. Important Points for Maslow
Needs at one level do not need to be satisfied
As needs on one level are fulfilled they cease to act as motivators and tension develops
Shortcomings:
Number of categories of needs
Not same hierarchy for everyone
Individuals may work to satisfy several needs at once.
Copyright  2005 McGraw-Hill Australia Pty Ltd PPTs t/a Management: A Pacific Rim Focus 4e by Bartol, Tein, Matthews, Martin

7. Lower level needs must be satisfied before higher needs are addressed.
Hierarchy of Needs
Need Level
Description
Examples
Self-
Actualization
Realize one’s
full potential
Use abilities
to the fullest
Esteem
Feel good
about oneself
Promotions
& recognition
Belongingness
Social
interaction, love
Interpersonal
relations, parties
Safety
Security, stability
Job security,
health insurance
Physiological
Food, water,
shelter
Basic pay level
to buy items
Lower level needs must be satisfied before higher needs are addressed.
Copyright  2005 McGraw-Hill Australia Pty Ltd PPTs t/a Management: A Pacific Rim Focus 4e by Bartol, Tein, Matthews, Martin

8. NEEDS THEORIES Two-factor theory (Herzberg)
Herzberg’s theory argues that hygiene factors are necessary to keep workers from feeling dissatisfied, but only motivators can lead workers to feel satisfied and motivated.
Herzberg built upon Maslow’s work in arguing that it was necessary to provide hygiene factors to reduce worker dissatisfaction and motivators to increase motivation and job satisfaction.
Further discussion may be found on page 368.
Copyright  2005 McGraw-Hill Australia Pty Ltd PPTs t/a Management: A Pacific Rim Focus 4e by Bartol, Tein, Matthews, Martin

9. NEEDS THEORIES Hygiene factors Motivators
Factors seeming to make individuals feel dissatisfied with their jobs
Associated with job circumstances
Motivators
Factors seeming to make individuals feel satisfied with their jobs
Associated with job content
Pages
Copyright  2005 McGraw-Hill Australia Pty Ltd PPTs t/a Management: A Pacific Rim Focus 4e by Bartol, Tein, Matthews, Martin

10. NEEDS THEORIES Hygiene factors Motivators
Pay
Working Conditions
Supervisors
Company Policies
Fringe benefits
Achievement
Responsibility
Work itself
Recognition
Growth
Advancement
These factors promote satisfaction.
These factors help prevent dissatisfaction.
Copyright  2005 McGraw-Hill Australia Pty Ltd PPTs t/a Management: A Pacific Rim Focus 4e by Bartol, Tein, Matthews, Martin

11. NEEDS THEORIES ERG theory (Alderfer):
Alternative to Maslow’s hierarchy of needs theory, which argues that there are three levels of individual needs.
Existence: material and physiological desires e.g. pay, fringe benefits, physical working conditions, desire to have productive impact on surroundings
Relatedness: relationships with significant others
Growth needs: creativity, innovation, and have productive impact on surroundings
Alderfer also built on Maslow’s work in proposing his ERG theory. However, he departs from Maslow in arguing that it is possible to be motivated by more than one need at a time, that people’s needs may well form differing hierarchies and that the frustration-regression principle may well rule out a category of need as a potential motivator.
Further discussion may be found on page 369.
Copyright  2005 McGraw-Hill Australia Pty Ltd PPTs t/a Management: A Pacific Rim Focus 4e by Bartol, Tein, Matthews, Martin

12. Principles of ERG
Individuals are concerned with fulfilling more than one need at a time, once one group of needs is fulfilled the satisfaction-progression principle applies.
Some individuals needs may occur in a different order than that outlined in erg
A frustration-regression principle applies if we are continually frustrated in our attempts to satisfy higher needs, will concentrate on more attainable lower-level needs
Copyright  2005 McGraw-Hill Australia Pty Ltd PPTs t/a Management: A Pacific Rim Focus 4e by Bartol, Tein, Matthews, Martin

13. Alderfer’s ERG Growth Relatedness Existence Need Level Description
Self-development,
creative work
Worker continually
improves skills
Relatedness
Interpersonal
relations, feelings
Good relations,
feedback
Existence
Food, water,
shelter
Basic pay level
to buy items
Lowest
Highest
Need Level
Description
Examples
After lower level needs satisfied, person seeks higher needs. When
unable to satisfy higher needs, lower needs motivation is raised.
Copyright  2005 McGraw-Hill Australia Pty Ltd PPTs t/a Management: A Pacific Rim Focus 4e by Bartol, Tein, Matthews, Martin

14. NEEDS THEORIES Acquired-needs theory (McClelland)
Theory stating that our needs are acquired or learned on the basis of our life experiences.
Differing from other needs-based motivational theorists, McClelland argued that needs were learned rather than innate. McClelland argued that needs are gained or learned by experience. Though needs come from a range of conditions, a specific event can influence our desires profoundly.
Further discussion may be found on page 371.
Copyright  2005 McGraw-Hill Australia Pty Ltd PPTs t/a Management: A Pacific Rim Focus 4e by Bartol, Tein, Matthews, Martin

15. NEEDS THEORIES Acquired needs theory (McClelland) Need for achievement
Desire to accomplish challenging tasks
Achieve results through own efforts
Feedback; competitive surroundings
Need for affiliation
Desire to have warm, friendly relationships
Involved with professions with interactions
Need for power
Desire to influence & control
personal power: try to dominate others for the sake of demonstrating their ability to exercise power.
institutional power: working with others to solve problems and further organizational goals.
Page 371

16. Classification of Needs by Four Theories of Motivation
Maslow’s Needs Hierarchy Theory
Alderfer’s ERG Theory
Herzberg’s Two-Factor Theory
McClelland’s Manifest Needs Theory
Self-actualization
Power
Esteem
Achievement
Social
Relatedness
Affiliation
Safety
Physiological
Growth
Motivators
Hygienes
Existence
Copyright  2005 McGraw-Hill Australia Pty Ltd PPTs t/a Management: A Pacific Rim Focus 4e by Bartol, Tein, Matthews, Martin

17. How Organizations Meet Employee Needs
Method:
Challenge
Autonomy
Leadership positions
Authority
Responsibility
Pay and Prestige
Growth
(esteem / self-actualization / motivators / achievement / power)
Relatedness
(social / hygiene / affiliation)
Coffee breaks
Sports teams
Social events
Work teams
Existence
(physiological / safety / hygiene)
Working conditions (safe/clean/attractive)
Job security – seniority
Employee benefits
Base Pay
Copyright  2005 McGraw-Hill Australia Pty Ltd PPTs t/a Management: A Pacific Rim Focus 4e by Bartol, Tein, Matthews, Martin

18. COGNITIVE THEORIES Expectancy theory Equity theory Goal-setting theory
Attempt to isolate thinking patterns used in deciding whether or not to behave in a certain way.
Thought process:
Expectancy theory
Equity theory
Goal-setting theory
Need theories identify internal desires guiding behaviour but do not explain the thought processes involved. In contrast, cognitive theories work to isolate thinking patterns used in deciding whether or not to act in a certain way. Cognitive theories do not conflict with need theories; rather, they look differently at motivation. As they concentrate on the thought processes of motivation, cognitive theories are called process theories.
Further discussion may be found on page 373.
Copyright  2005 McGraw-Hill Australia Pty Ltd PPTs t/a Management: A Pacific Rim Focus 4e by Bartol, Tein, Matthews, Martin

19. COGNITIVE THEORIES Expectancy theory (Vroom)
Developed by Victor Vroom and is a very popular theory of work motivation.
Vroom suggests that motivation will be high when workers feel:
High levels of effort lead to high performance.
High performance will lead to the attainment of desire outcomes.
Consists of three areas:
Expectancy, Instrumentality, & Valence
Motivation = Expectancy x Valence
Expectancy: person’s perception of his or her ability (probability) to accomplish an objective
The higher one’s expectancy, the better the motivation
Valence: the value a person places on the outcome or reward
The higher the value (importance) of the outcome or reward, the better the motivation
Pages
Copyright  2005 McGraw-Hill Australia Pty Ltd PPTs t/a Management: A Pacific Rim Focus 4e by Bartol, Tein, Matthews, Martin

20. Three main issues of expectancy theory
Effort-performance expectancy : assessing the probability of our efforts that will lead to the required performance level. Evaluate own ability and consider the contextual factors
Performance-outcome expectancy: assessing the probability of successful performance that will lead to certain outcomes.. Rewards will be considered.
Valence refers to assessment of anticipated value of various outcomes or rewards. If available rewards interest us, valance is high.
Copyright  2005 McGraw-Hill Australia Pty Ltd PPTs t/a Management: A Pacific Rim Focus 4e by Bartol, Tein, Matthews, Martin

21. Expectancy, Instrumentality, & Valence
Effort
Expectancy:
Person’s
perception that
their effort will
result in
performance
Instrumentality
results in
outcomes
Valence:
How desired
are the outcomes
from a
job
Performance
Outcomes
Expectancy theory argues that when deciding to expend effort, we consider all three elements: effort-performance, performance-outcome and valence. Expectancy theory gives useful guidelines to managers, however results may not be as expected if employees do not see outcomes as equitable.
Further discussion may be found on page 375.
Copyright  2005 McGraw-Hill Australia Pty Ltd PPTs t/a Management: A Pacific Rim Focus 4e by Bartol, Tein, Matthews, Martin

22. Expectancy Theory High Motivation: should have high e-p. provide
High Expectancy
(Worker knows that
if they try, they can
perform)
High
Instrumentality
(Worker perceives that
high performance
leads to outcomes)
High Valence
(Worker desires the
outcomes resulting
from high
performance)
High
Motivation: should have high e-p. provide
training to provide expertise.
Copyright  2005 McGraw-Hill Australia Pty Ltd PPTs t/a Management: A Pacific Rim Focus 4e by Bartol, Tein, Matthews, Martin

23. COGNITIVE THEORIES Equity theory (Adams)
Considers worker’s perceptions of the fairness of work outcomes in proportion to their inputs.
Adams notes it is the relative rather than the absolute level of outcomes a person receives.
The Outcome/input ratio is compared by worker with another person called a referent.
The referent is perceived as similar to the worker.
Equity exists when a person perceives their outcome/input ratio to be equal to the referent’s ratio.
If the referent receives more outcomes, they should also give more inputs to achieve equity.
Adams developed this theory to explain how we identify and react to events we see as inequitable. According to this theory, we prefer situations of balance or equity: i.e. when inputs are equal to outputs in comparison to others.
Further discussion may be found on pages
Copyright  2005 McGraw-Hill Australia Pty Ltd PPTs t/a Management: A Pacific Rim Focus 4e by Bartol, Tein, Matthews, Martin

24. Inputs: educational background, skills, experiences, hours worked, performance results
Outcomes: pay, bonuses, praise, parking places, office space, work assignment.
Inequity: perception that the level of input is not matched with the outcomes.
Under-reward: is when our input/output ratio seen to be less than that of a comparison
Over-reward: is when our input/output ratio is seen to be greater than that of a comparison other.
Copyright  2005 McGraw-Hill Australia Pty Ltd PPTs t/a Management: A Pacific Rim Focus 4e by Bartol, Tein, Matthews, Martin

25. COGNITIVE THEORIES Goal-setting theory
Goal-setting theory [technique] works by focusing attention & action, mobilising effort, increasing persistence, & encouraging the development of strategy to achieve goals.
Goal-setting’s success in motivating performance depends on setting goals with the right aspects, i.e. measurable, challenging, attainable, relevant and time-limited.
Further discussion may be found on page 376.
Copyright  2005 McGraw-Hill Australia Pty Ltd PPTs t/a Management: A Pacific Rim Focus 4e by Bartol, Tein, Matthews, Martin

26. REINFORCEMENT THEORY (Skinner)
Theory arguing that our behaviour can be explained by consequences in the environment.
Behavior can be controlled through the use of rewards.
Behavior is learned through experiences of positive and negative consequences
TYPES:
Positive
Reinforcement
Negative
Extinction
Punishment
In reinforcement theory, a stimulus cues a response or behaviour, followed by a consequence. If this is rewarding we are more likely to repeat the behaviour when the stimulus reoccurs. If we find it unrewarding we are unlikely to repeat the behaviour.
Further discussion may be found on page 378.
Copyright  2005 McGraw-Hill Australia Pty Ltd PPTs t/a Management: A Pacific Rim Focus 4e by Bartol, Tein, Matthews, Martin

27. Reinforcement theory
Relies on law of effect: which states that behaviors having pleasant or positive consequences are most likely to be repeated.
Positive reinforcement and negative are aimed at increasing a behavior.
Extinction and punishment focus on decreasing a behavior
Skinner argued that positive reinforcement and extinction encourage individual growth, whereas negative reinforcement and punishment foster immaturity in individuals.
Copyright  2005 McGraw-Hill Australia Pty Ltd PPTs t/a Management: A Pacific Rim Focus 4e by Bartol, Tein, Matthews, Martin

28. Motivation Techniques
Giving Praise
Management by
Objectives (MBO)
Job Enrichment
Job Design
Copyright  2005 McGraw-Hill Australia Pty Ltd PPTs t/a Management: A Pacific Rim Focus 4e by Bartol, Tein, Matthews, Martin

29. SOCIAL LEARNING THEORY
Social learning theory (Bandura)
Theory arguing that learning occurs through continuous reciprocal interaction of our behaviours, various personal factors and environmental forces.
Social learning theory argues that behaviour is learnt by observing, imitating and interacting with the social environment.
Social learning theory combines cognitive and reinforcement approaches.
Further discussion may be found on page 383.
Copyright  2005 McGraw-Hill Australia Pty Ltd PPTs t/a Management: A Pacific Rim Focus 4e by Bartol, Tein, Matthews, Martin

30. SOCIAL LEARNING THEORY
Learning occurs by continuous
interaction between our behaviours,
personal factors and environmental
forces, viz.:
Symbolic processes: use of verbal and imagined symbols to process and store experiences to guide future behavior.
Self-control/regulation: ability to control our own behavior by setting standards and providing consequences.
Vicarious learning: ability to use observations to learn new behaviors and to process outcomes.
Pages
Copyright  2005 McGraw-Hill Australia Pty Ltd PPTs t/a Management: A Pacific Rim Focus 4e by Bartol, Tein, Matthews, Martin