1. Unit 7 Land Management Timber Harvesting and Federal Lands
Chapter 12 Part 2

2. Harvesting timber: clear-cutting
All trees in the area are cut
Most cost-efficient
Greatest impact on forest ecosystems
May mimic some natural forms of disturbance
Destroy entire communities
Soil erosion
Public is outraged over this type of harvesting

5. Harvesting: other methods
Seed-tree cutting = a small number of seed-producing trees are left standing to reseed the area
Shelter-wood cutting = a small number of trees are left to provide shelter for the seedlings
Selection systems = only select trees are cut
Single tree selection = widely spaced trees are cut
Group tree selection = small patches of trees are cut
***All methods disturb habitat
Change forest structure and composition
Increase erosion, siltation, runoff, flooding, landslides

6. Public forests can be managed for many things
Increased public awareness caused people to urge changed forest management
For recreation, wildlife and ecosystem integrity, instead of logging
Critics protested federal subsidies of logging companies
Multiple use policy = national forests were to be managed for recreation, habitat, minerals and other uses
In reality, timber production is the primary use
The Forest Service loses $100 million/yr by selling timber below cost

7. The National Forest Management Act (1976)
Mandated that plans for renewable resource management had to be drawn up for every national forest
Guidelines included:
Consideration of both economic and environmental factors
Provision for species diversity
Ensuring research and monitoring
Permitting only sustainable harvests
Protection of soils and wetlands
Assessing all impacts before logging to protect resources

8. New forestry management is under attack
Calls for timber cuts that mimic natural disturbances
Harvesting methods are based on ecosystem approaches
The Bush administration has rolled back these regulations
Freed managers from requirements of the Act
Loosened environmental protections
Repealed President Clinton’s roadless rule, which protected 31% of national forests from road building
California, Oregon, and New Mexico have sued the government to reinstate the roadless rule

9. Fire policy also stirs controversy
For over 100 years, the Forest Service suppressed all fires
But many ecosystems depend on fires
Fire suppression allows woody accumulation, which produces kindling for future fires
Which are much worse
Housing development near forests and climate change will increase fire risk
Prescribed (controlled) burns = burning areas of forests under carefully controlled conditions
Effective
May get out of control
Impeded by public misunderstanding and political interference
Healthy Forests Restoration Act (2003) = promotes removal of small trees, underbrush and dead trees
Passed in response to forest fires

12. Salvage logging Removal of dead trees following a natural disturbance
Seems logical, but is really destructive
Snags (standing dead trees) provide nesting cavities for countless animals
Removing timber from recently burned areas increases erosion and soil damage
Promotes future fires
Increases commercial logging in national forests
Decreases oversight and public participation

15. Sustainable forestry is gaining ground
Sustainable forestry certification = only products produced sustainably can be certified
International Organization for Standardization (ISO), Forest Stewardship Council (FSC) have different standards
Consumers look for logos to buy sustainably produced timber
Companies such as Home Depot sell sustainable wood
Encourages better logging practices

16. Agricultural land use
Agriculture covers 38% of the Earths’ terrestrial surface
26% supports pasture, 12% supports crops
The most widespread type of land use
Causes tremendous environmental impacts
Governments spend billions of dollars on subsidies
Proponents say farmers need this insurance against bad years
Critics say farmers should buy their own insurance

17. Wetlands have been drained for farming
Many crop lands grow on former wetlands
Governments have encouraged wetland draining
Promote settlement and farming
Transferred land to states
Stimulated draining
Less than half the wetlands remain
Many people have a new view of wetlands
Not worthless swamps, but valuable ecosystems
Demanded regulations to safeguard remaining wetlands
But, because of loopholes, wetlands are still being lost
Conservation Reserve Program (1985) subsidized farmers to take highly erodable land out of production
Turn it into wildlife habitat

20. Livestock graze one-fourth of Earth’s Land
Grazing can be sustainable if done carefully and at low intensity
Bureau of Land Management (BLM) = owns and manages most U.S. rangeland
Nation’s single largest landowner: 106 million ha (261 million acres) across 12 western states
Ranchers can graze cattle on BLM lands for low fees
Low fees encourage overgrazing
Ranchers and environmentalists have joined to preserve ranchland against development and urban sprawl
Overexploitation of resources caused great damage to the American West
Poor farming practices, overgrazing, farming arid lands
John Wesley Powell in the late 1800s called for agencies to base management on science
Farming Western lands had to account for arid conditions
His ideas were ignored, contributing to failures such as the Dust Bowl of the 1930s

23. Parks and reserves
Reasons for establishing parks and reserves include:
Monumentalism = preserving areas with enormous, beautiful or unusual features, such as the Grand Canyon
Offer recreational value to tourists, hikers, fishers, hunters and others
Protect areas with utilitarian benefits, such as clean drinking water
Use sites that are otherwise economically not valuable and are therefore easy to protect
Preservation of biodiversity

24. Federal parks and reserves began in the U.S.
National parks = public lands protected from resource extraction and development
Open to nature appreciation and recreation
Yellowstone National Park was established in 1872
The Antiquities Act of 1906
The president can declare selected public lands as national monuments
Created in 1916 to administer parks and monuments
388 sites totaling 32 million ha (72 million acres)
Includes national historic sites, national recreation areas, national wild and scenic rivers
273 million visitors in 2006

27. National Wildlife Refuges and Wilderness areas
Begun in 1903 by President Theodore Roosevelt
37 million ha (91 million acres) in 541 sites
U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service administers refuges
Management ranges from preservation to manipulation
Wildlife havens
Allows hunting, fishing, wildlife observation, photography, education
Wilderness areas = area is off-limits to development of any kind
Open to the public for hiking, nature study, etc.
Must have minimal impact on the land
Necessary to ensure that humans don’t occupy and modify all natural areas
Established within federal lands
Overseen by the agencies that administer those areas

30. Not everyone supports land set-asides
Restriction of activities in wilderness areas generated opposition to U.S. land protection policies
Some western states want resource extraction and development
The wise-use movement = a coalition of individuals and industries that oppose environmental protection
Protecting private property, transferring federal lands to state or private hands, promoting motorized recreation on public lands
Farmers, ranchers, loggers, mineral and fossil fuel industries

31. Nonfederal entities also protect land
Each U.S. state and Canadian province has agencies that manage resources
So do counties and municipalities
Land trusts = local or regional organizations that purchase land to protect it
The Nature Conservancy is the world’s largest land trust
Trusts protect 4.1 million ha (10.2 million acres)
Jackson Hole, Wyoming is protected by a land trust

32. Parks and reserves are increasing internationally
Many nations have established national parks
Benefit from ecotourism
Protected areas now cover 9.6% of the world’s land area
Parks do not always receive necessary funding
Paper parks = Areas protected on paper but not in reality
World heritage sites = protected areas that fall under national sovereignty but are designated or managed by the United Nations
830 sites across 184 countries

33. The SLOSS dilemma Which is better to protect species?
A Single Large Or Several Small reserves?
Depends on the species: tigers vs. insects
Corridors = protected land that allows animals to travel between islands of protected habitat
Animals get more resources
Enables gene flow between populations