1. First: The Central Executive Then: Intro to Long-Term Memory
Psychology 355: Cognitive Psychology Instructor: John Miyamoto 04/25/2018: Lecture 05-3
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2. Outline Neuropsychological evidence for spatial rehearsal in the VSP
Summary: Similarities and differences between PL and VSP
Introduction to long-term memory
Components of long-term memory
HM - a man with a memorable memory impairment
Psych 355, Miyamoto, Spr '18
Definition of Neural Mind Reading

3. Neural Mind Reading
Neural Mind Reading - guessing what someone was thinking from the neural response.
Neural mind reading of perceptual processing: Using brain imaging (fMRI) to guess which pattern a subject is viewing at a particular time.
Neural mind reading of spatial working memory: Using brain imaging (fMRI) to guess which pattern a subject was maintaining in visual working memory (VSP), even though the visual stimulus has been removed.
* Neural mind reading of spatial working memory is evidence that spatial working memory (VSP) exists as a separate component from the phonological loop (PL).
Psych 355, Miyamoto, Spr '18
Neural Mind Reading of Perceptual Processes

4. Neural Mind Reading of Perceptual Processing
Kamitani, Y., & Tong, F. (2005). Decoding the visual and subjective contents of the human brain. Nature Neuroscience, 8, 679–685.
fMRI used to guess which pattern a subject is viewing
On each trial, the subject views the pattern on left or the pattern on the right:
Researcher tries to guess the stimulus based on fMRI image taken while subject views the stimulus.
Psychologists achieve accuracy of 75% - 100% depending on the stimulus pair. Guessing rate would be 50%. OR
Perception study: Subject sees a striped disk. Experimenter who does not know which disk the subject was looking at has to predict the orientation of the stripes based on an fMRI image of the subject's visual cortex.
The analysis of the fMRI image is based not merely on a map of brain activation, but on knowledge established in previous studies as to which specific voxels in visual cortex are sensitive to orientation information in stimuli like the one displayed on the slide.
“voxel” = unit of volume in fMRI brain image.
Psych 355, Miyamoto, Spr '18
Neural Mind Reading of Rehearsal in VSP

5. Neural Mind Reading of Rehearsal in VSP
Harrison, S. A., & Tong, F. (2009). Decoding reveals the contents of visual working memory in early visual areas. Nature, 458, 462–465.
On each trial, the subject views a sequence of screens.
Researcher tries to guess the image held in WM based on fMRI image taken while subject retains the memory of the cued stimulus.
Psychologists achieve accuracy of 80% (average).
fMRI successfully detected VSP rehearsal of the target image.
11 seconds 2
Target 1
Target 2
Remember This Target
fMRI Recording
Test Stimulus
Is Test Stimulus Clockwise or Counterclockwise?
Visual working memory study: Subject sees both striped disks. The disks disappears. The subject is given a cue, 1 or 2, that tells him which disk to hold in memory. After an 11 second delay, the subject is shown a new striped disk. Subject's task is to say whether the test stimulus (striped disk) is rotated clockwise or counterclockwise relative to the remembered target (either 1 or 2 depending on the memory cue).
Note that every trial has the same stimuli up until the cue for the target (1 or 2). The fMRI differences are not caused by stimulus differences.
Harrison and Tong had previously identified orientation specific voxels (tiny rectalinear volumes in the brain). Researchers used activity in visual cortex to predict orientation of the target that was being retained during the 11 second retention period. 2
Psych 355, Miyamoto, Spr '18
Graph Showing Brain Activity in Visual Cortex While Retaining Orientation Info

6. fMRI Measure of Brain Activity During Stimulus Trial
Harrison, S. A., & Tong, F. (2009). Decoding reveals the contents of visual working memory in early visual areas. Nature, 458, 462–465.
The graph (b) shows brain activity during the retention period (and after the retention period - not relevant to our current topic).
BOLD contrast is strong in targeted areas of visual cortex during the retention period (11 seconds), even though there is no visual stimulus.
The fact that the activity was in the visual cortex supports interpretation that what we are observing is spatial rehearsal.
Stimulus Sequence
Brain Activity in Visual Cortex During 11 Second Retention
Psych 355, Miyamoto, Spr '18
Summary: Neuropsych Evidence for WM Components

7. Neuropsychological Evidence for WM Components
There is a short-term memory store (VSP) that is specific for visual imagery and spatial representations.
Evidence for “spatial rehearsal” in VSP
Single-cell recordings in monkey
Imaging studies of phonological loop:
No one brain locus shows increased activity during rehearsal.
Multiple brain areas that are associated with language show increased activity.
Evidence from cognitive impairments
* Comment re neural mind reading and a totalitarian state.
Psych 355, Miyamoto, Spr '18
Table Comparing PL to VSP - Overview of Layout

8. Summary: Comparison Between PL & VSP
Phonological Loop
Common Characteristics
Differences
Visuospatial Sketchpad
Common Characteristics
Differences
Psych 355, Miyamoto, Win '13
Comparison of PL & VSP - END

9. Summary: Comparison Between PL & VSP
Phonological Loop
Limited capacity
Information is retained by an active process (verbal rehearsal)
Information is highly accessible
Multiple verbal tasks interfere with each other.
PL processes linguistic information;
Visuospatial Sketchpad
Limited capacity
Information is retained by an active process (manipulation of mental imagery)
Information is highly accessible
Multiple visual tasks interfere with each other.
VSP processes visual imagery and spatial information.
Verbal Task + Visual Task produces less interference than Verbal Task + Verbal Task or Visual Task + Visual Task
Different areas of the brain show enhanced activity during verbal and visual/spatial rehearsal.
Psych 355, Miyamoto, Spr '18
Diagram of Working Memory Model: Focus Next on Central Executive

10. Baddeley-Hitch Working Memory (WM) Model
Phonological Loop (PL)
Short-term storage
Rehearsal
Manipulation of verbal information
Visuospatial Sketch Pad (VSP)
Short-term storage of visual & spatial information
Manipulation of visual images and spatial information.
Basic Idea: At least two short-term memory stores, audition (language), visual/spatial.
What justifies the hypothesis that there are separate memory stores?
What justifies the assumption of an executive process.
3. Central Executive
Directs activity within the PL or VSP.
Coordinates activity between PL and VSP, and long-term memory (LTM).
Psych 355, Miyamoto, Spr '18
Arguments for a Central Executive

11. Arguments for a Central Executive
Conceptual Argument: The brain somehow controls activity in WM.
Let's give this controlling mental function a name: The Central Executive.
Baddeley has called the central executive the "attention controller."
Baddeley has also called the theory of the central executive "a ragbag."
Evidence from clinical neuropsychology:
A variety of pathologies have been found that relate to the functions of the central executive.
These pathologies are often related to injury to the frontal lobe of the brain. Especially, to the prefrontal cortex.
Frontal lobe damage
Psych 355, Miyamoto, Spr '18
Stroop Task & Frontal Lobe Syndrome

12. Incompatible Condition
Stroop Task
Name the color of the font in which the word is printed. Ignore the meaning of the word.
Compatible Condition
BLUE GREEN RED BLACK GREEN RED etc
Incompatible Condition
BLUE GREEN RED BLACK GREEN RED etc
Obviously, the incompatible condition is harder (slower).
What does this have to do with executive processes?
Frontal lobe damage – much slower in the incompatible condition. Why? – Stroop task requires self-control.
Psych 355, Miyamoto, Spr '18
Wisconsin Card Sort Task & Frontal Lobe Syndrome

13. Wisconsin Card Sort Task
Match new card to the “correct” old card.
Subject guesses which old car matches the new card.
Subject gets feedback, "correct" or "incorrect." Subject gradually learns the rule for "correct" response.
Criterion for “correct” old card keeps changing over blocks of trials.
Old Cards
New Card
Block 1: “Correct” responses based on matching shape.
Block 2: “Correct” responses based on matching color.
Psych 355, Miyamoto, Spr '18
Patients with Frontal Lobe Damage Have Difficulty when the Criterion Changes

14. Wisconsin Card Sort Task
Normal performance: Subjects can learn to switch the criterion for a new block of trials.
Frontal lobe damage – normal performance on first block of trials, but they have great difficulty when the experimenter changes the rule.
Block 1: “Correct” responses based on matching shape.
Block 2: “Correct” responses based on matching color.
Psych 355, Miyamoto, Spr '18
Self-Control & Working Memory

15. Self Control & Working Memory (WM)
Hypothesis:
WM & central executive monitors current plans & goals. WM monitors adherence to these plans and goals.
If a task places extra load on WM, then adherence to plans and goals will suffer.
Psych 355, Miyamoto, Spr '18
fMRI Study of Inhibition of Irrelevant Information

16. fMRI Study of Inhibition of Irrelevant Information
Remember Faces
Just Watch
This experiment: Gazzaley, A., Cooney, J. W., Rissman, J., & D'Esposito, M. (2005). Top-down suppression deficit underlies working memory impairment in normal aging. Nature Neuroscience, 8,
Gazzaley, A., Cooney, J. W., Rissman, J., & D'Esposito, M. (2005). Top-down suppression deficit underlies working memory impairment in normal aging. Nature Neuroscience, 8,
fMRI measurement of brain activity in left parahippocampal/lingual gyrus (overlaps the parahippocampal place area/PPA). Specialized for place perception.
Psych 355, Miyamoto, Spr '18
Definition of Face-Relevant & Passive Viewing Conditions

17. fMRI Study of Inhibition of Irrelevant Information
Remember Faces
Just Watch
This experiment: Gazzaley, A., Cooney, J. W., Rissman, J., & D'Esposito, M. (2005). Top-down suppression deficit underlies working memory impairment in normal againg. Nature Neuroscience, 8,
Face Relevant Condition: Remember faces; ignore scenes. Later tested for recognition of a face.
Passive Condition: Simply view the stimuli. Later tested on whether the arrow points left or right.
Psych 355, Miyamoto, Spr '18
Definition of Good Suppressors & Poor Suppressors

18. fMRI Study of Inhibition of Irrelevant Information
Lower
Higher
Lower
Higher
Remember Faces
Just Watch
Good Suppressors – People whose brain activity was less when the scene was irrelevant than when scene was passively viewed.
Same Slide - Add Definition of Poor Suppressors
Psych 355, Miyamoto, Spr '18

19. fMRI Study of Inhibition of Irrelevant Information
Higher
Lower
Higher
Lower
Remember Faces
Just Watch
Good Suppressors – People whose brain activity was less when the scene was irrelevant than when scene was passively viewed.
Poor Suppressors – People whose brain activity was greater when the scene was irrelevant than when scene was passively viewed.
Psych 355, Miyamoto, Spr '18
Results of fMRI Study of Inhibition of Irrelevant Scene Stimuli

20. Results of fMRI Study of Inhibition of Irrelevant Information
Good suppressors are better at recognizing faces.
Proposed explanation: Good suppressors have better central executive function; they are better at inhibiting irrelevant information.
Psych 355, Miyamoto, Spr '18
Summary re Frontal Lobe Syndrome & Central Executive

21. Frontal Lobe Damage & Impaired Functioning of the Central Executive
Central executive controls attention to relevant information and responses.Inhibits irrelevant information and responses.
Frontal lobe damage leads to difficulty inhibiting irrelevant information and responses.
Stroop task, Wisconsin card sort task, face recognition with irrelevant scenes: To respond correctly, you need to inhibit a response. People with frontal lobe damage have difficulty inhibiting tempting wrong responses.
People differ in how effective they are at inhibiting irrelevant information. People who are better at inhibiting irrelevant information are better at performing cognitive tasks that depend on the relevant stimuli.
Psych 355, Miyamoto, Spr '18
Return to Baddeley’s List of Central Executive Functions

22. Baddeley’s List of Functions of the Central Executive
Only partially understood. Very active area of current research.
Alan Baddeley – chief developer of working memory theory (Baddeley calls the theory of the central executive a "ragbag")
Controlling and allocating attention.
Coordinating current activity of working memory with goals.
Task switching. Multi-tasking.
Selection and launching of responses.
Inhibiting associated but inappropriate responses.
Controlling the interface between STM and LTM, especially LTM search & retrieval.
Chunking
Psych 355, Miyamoto, Spr '18
Introduction to Long-Term Memory