1. Human Anatomy T

2. The Brain Organization of the Nervous System
The nervous system includes two major divisions.
The first division is the central nervous system and is made up of the brain and the spinal cord.
The brain is the control center of the nervous system.
The spinal cord carries nerve signals between the body and the brain.

4. The Brain - FPOT

5. Organization of the Nervous System
The second division is the peripheral nervous system and consists of neurons that have cell bodies and that are not included in the brain and spinal cord.

6. Objectives Overview of factors that affect blood flow
The Circulatory System
Objectives
Overview of factors that affect blood flow
Describe how disease, exercise and blood volume affect blood pressure.
Describe how increased and decreased resistance in blood vessels affects blood flow.

7. Circulatory System
Transportation system by which oxygen and nutrients reach the body’s cells, and waste materials are carried away.
Also carries substances called hormones, which control body processes, and antibodies to fight invading germs.

8. Parts of the Circulatory System
Divided into three major parts:
The Heart
The Blood
The Blood Vessels

9. Parts of the Circulatory System
The heart, the lungs, and the blood vessels work together to form the circle
part of the circulatory system

10. Circulation
Blood travels through arteries to the lungs where it gets fresh oxygen
Blood from lungs move through the veins back to the heart's left ventricle and is pumped out into the body

12. The Heart Control of the Heartbeat A heartbeat has two phases.
The Circulatory System
The Heart
Control of the Heartbeat
A heartbeat has two phases.
Phase one is called systole and occurs when the ventricles contract
Phase two is called diastole and occurs when the ventricles relax.

13. The Heart Control of the Heartbeat, continued
The Circulatory System
The Heart
Control of the Heartbeat, continued
A series of pressure waves are caused by the contractions of the left ventricle when it forces blood through the arteries. This is called a pulse.

14. Blood Vessels Arteries and Blood Pressure
The Circulatory System
Blood Vessels
Arteries and Blood Pressure
Arteries - vessels that carry blood away from the heart and to the body are called arteries.
As the heart moves the blood through the arteries, it produces a great force against the inside walls of a blood vessel. This force is known as blood pressure.

15. Blood Vessels Capillaries Veins Carry blood to the heart
The Circulatory System
Blood Vessels
Veins
Carry blood to the heart
Capillaries
Connect arteries and veins. Where the exchange of materials takes place

16. Blood Vessels

17. Blood Vessels Arteries and Blood Pressure
Normal blood pressure = 120/80
Fluctuates
Hypertension = consistent high blood pressure

18. Blood Vessels
Arteries and Blood Pressure
High blood pressure, or hypertension, can place a strain on the walls of the arteries and could cause that artery to burst.

19. Blood Vessels Arteries and Blood Pressure
Atherosclerosis - a disease in which plaque builds up inside your arteries. Arteries are blood vessels that carry oxygen-rich blood to your heart and other parts of your body.
Plaque is made up of fat, cholesterol, calcium, and other substances found in the blood. Over time, plaque hardens and narrows your arteries.
Can lead to serious problems, including heart attack, stroke, or even death

20. Blood Vessels
Arteries and Blood Pressure
In order to measure blood pressure, systolic pressure and diastolic pressure must be measured.
Systolic pressure, measured first, is the pressure of the blood when the ventricles contract.
Diastolic pressure, measured second, indicates the steady flow of blood through the artery.

21. Factors that Affect Blood Flow
Blood pressure
Volume
Viscosity
Viscosity refers to the thickness of blood. This thickness is caused by the number of red blood cells. Thick blood travels through blood vessels at a slower rate than thin blood and can increase the resistance to flow, affecting the rate of blood flow in the arteries.
Resistance
Disease
Exercise

22. Composition of Blood Red Blood Cells (Erythrocytes)
A red blood cell - a disc-shaped cell that transports oxygen to cells the body.
Red blood cells can thicken the rate of blood flow
Takes carbon dioxide and transports it back to the lungs
About 5,000,000 Red Blood Cells in ONE drop of blood.

23. Composition of Blood White Blood Cells (Lymphocytes)
White blood cells are cells in the blood that destroy bacteria, viruses, and toxic proteins and helps the body develop immunities.
2 types of white blood cells, including phagocytes and antibodies.
Phagocytes are cells that engulf and digest foreign matter or microorganisms.
Antibodies are proteins that react to a specific type of invader or inactivate or destroy toxins.

24. The Body’s Defense Systems
Identifying Pathogens
A pathogen is any agent that causes disease and can be spread through the air, food, water, or direct contact with an infected animal or protein.
A disease that is caused by a pathogenic bacteria, virus, fungi, or protist is called an infectious disease.

25. First Line of Defense: Barriers
Nonspecific defenses, such as the skin and mucous membranes, are barriers to potential pathogens.
In addition to being a physical barrier to pathogens, skin also produces sweat, oils, and waxes, which are toxic to many bacteria.
A mucous membrane is a layer of epithelial tissue that covers internal surfaces of the body and secretes mucus, a sticky fluid that traps pathogens

26. Second Line of Defense: Nonspecific Immunity
If a pathogen gets past the skin and the mucous membranes, the body triggers the second line of defense, which is nonspecific immunity.
Nonspecific immunity includes the inflammatory response and the temperature response.

27. Second Line of Defense: Nonspecific Immunity
Inflammatory Response
An inflammatory response is a series of events that suppress infection and speed recovery.
When cells are damaged they release chemical messengers, such as histamine.
Histamine is a substance that increases blood flow to the injured area and increases the permeability of surrounding capillaries.

28. Inflammatory Response

29. Second Line of Defense: Nonspecific Immunity
Temperature Response
When the body begins to fight pathogens, body temperature may increase. This rise in temperature is called a fever.

30. Second Line of Defense The Immune System
The immune system includes the cells and tissues that recognize and attack foreign substances in the body.
The components of the immune system are found throughout the body

31. The Immune System
Bone marrow, the thymus, lymph nodes, the spleen, adenoids, and tonsils are all part of the immune system.
Each part of the immune system plays a special role in defending the body against pathogens.
Lymphocytes –white blood cells (specialized cells) that exists in two primary forms: T and B cells.

32. The Immune System
B cells - make antibodies made in the bone marrow and complete their development there or in the spleen.
B cells make antibodies
T cells - cells that are made in the bone marrow but complete their development only after traveling to the thymus.
participate in many immune reactions

33. The Immune System
Antigens are foreign substances that can trigger an immune response
Are located on outer surfaces of bacteria, viruses, etc.
Antibodies are defensive proteins that react to a specific antigen or inactivate or indirectly destroy toxins.
Use various methods to disable a pathogen or cause its destruction.

34. The Immune System
The immune system reacts to antigens by increasing the number of cells that attack the invader or by producing antibodies

35. Immunity & Vaccination
Immunity is the ability to resist an infectious disease.
Immunity can come about in two ways: surviving an initial infection or through vaccination.
Vaccination is the introduction of antigens into the body to cause immunity

36. Immunity & Vaccination
Vaccines
Vaccination usually involves an injection of a vaccine.
A vaccine is a solution that contains a dead or weakened pathogen or material from a pathogen that still contains antigens.
The immune system will produce a primary immune response to the antigens. Memory cells can then provide a quick secondary immune response if the antigen ever enters the body again.

37. Problems of the Immune System
Sometimes the immune system can react to harmless antigens. Three examples of this are allergies, asthma, and autoimmune diseases.
Allergies
An allergy is a physical response to an antigen, which can be a common substance that produces little or no response in the general population.

38. Problems of the Immune System
Asthma
Allergies can trigger asthma. Asthma is a respiratory disorder that causes the bronchioles to narrow due to an overreaction to substances in the air.
During an asthma attack, the lining of the bronchioles and other respiratory tissues may also swell and become inflamed. .

39. Problems of the Immune System
Autoimmune Diseases
An autoimmune disease occurs when the immune system attacks an organism’s own cells.
Autoimmune diseases can affect organs and tissues in various areas of the body.

40. Problems of the Immune System
HIV & AIDS
The Course of HIV Infection
AIDS (acquired immunodeficiency syndrome) is a disease caused by HIV (human immunodeficiency virus).
Infection by HIV causes the immune system to lose its ability to fight off pathogens and cancers.
HIV infection usually progresses to AIDS in three phases.

41. AIDS (acquired immunodeficiency syndrome)

42. Transmission of HIV
HIV is transmitted by the transfer of body fluids containing HIV or HIV-infected cells.
This most commonly occurs by sexual contact with an infected person or by use of syringes and hypodermic needles that have been contaminated with blood containing HIV.
HIV cannot be transmitted through casual contact

43. Vaccines and Treatments
Effective treatments and vaccines for HIV are difficult to create, because HIV has a rapid mutation rate.
Treatment is also difficult because HIV quickly becomes resistant to antiviral drugs.
Most HIV treatments are expensive and require a complicated multidrug therapy.