1. OPTION - UNIT 7 GEOECOLOGY
THE NATURAL ENVIRONMENT
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Revised Geography Syllabus

2. Revised Geography Syllabus
Syllabus Links - Soils
Core: 1.2 Weathering and Erosion
Core: 1.7 Human Interaction
Core: 2.2 Physical Processes
Irish regions
European Regions
Continental / sub-continental region
Core: 3 Fieldwork
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Revised Geography Syllabus

3. Syllabus Links - Biomes
Core: 2.2 Continental / sub-continental region
Elective: 4.5 Environmental Impact
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Revised Geography Syllabus

4. Revised Geography Syllabus
SOILS – Development
Weathering of Rocks in Situ
Re-deposited Weathered
Material
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Revised Geography Syllabus

5. 7.1 SOILS – Development - Profiles
General
O Organic Layer consists of plant
litter and humus
Not present in cultivated fields
A Topsoil consists of humus and minerals
The ploughed layer
B Subsoil low in organic material
C Transition Area between soil and parent material consists of partially disintegrated bedrock
R Bedrock
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Revised Geography Syllabus

6. 7.1 SOILS – Development - Profiles
Brown Earth
Source ENCARTA
Tropical Red Soil
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Revised Geography Syllabus

7. Revised Geography Syllabus
7.1 SOILS – Development
CHARACTERISTICS
Texture
Colour
Structure
Water Content
Organic Content
Water Retention
Etc.
COMPOSITION
Mineral Matter
Organic matter
Water
Air
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Revised Geography Syllabus

8. Revised Geography Syllabus
7.1 SOILS: Composition
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Revised Geography Syllabus

9. 7.1 SOILS: Characteristics – Texture
Texture refers to the proportions of sand, silt and clay present.
Texture determines the percolation and water retention qualities of the soil which influences the ability of the soil to retain nutrients
Texture also determines how roots of plants are able to penetrate the soil
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Revised Geography Syllabus

10. 7.1 SOILS: Characteristics - Texture
Particle Size
Clay:
Less than 0.002mm
Silt:
0.002 – 0.02mm
Sand:
0.02 – 2.0mm
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Revised Geography Syllabus

11. 7.1 SOILS: Characteristics – Determining Soil Texture
Fill a screw topped clear glass jar two thirds full with soil
Add water until jar is almost full
Shake the jar for 1 minute approx.
Leave the jar to settle for 24 hours
100
Clay 90 80
Silt 70
Fine Sand 60 50 40
70% sand, 10% silt 20% clay = Sandy Loam/ Sandy Clay Loam soil 30
Coarse Sand 20 10
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Revised Geography Syllabus

12. 7.1 SOILS: Characteristics - Texture
Sample
Sand 70%
Clay 20%
Silt 10%
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Revised Geography Syllabus

13. 7.1 SOILS: Characteristics – Texture
Sandy Soils
Generally loose coarse particles easy to cultivate
Good drainage and aeration
Prone to leaching
Poor water retention makes them prone to drought
Easily eroded by water when wet and wind when dry
Silty Soils
Generally loose finer particles
Better water retention than the coarser sandy soil
Tend to lack nutrients which hinders seed germination
Easily eroded by heavy rainfall
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Revised Geography Syllabus

14. 7.1 SOILS: Characteristics – Texture
Clay Soils
Very fine bonded particles
Poor drainage and aeration
Prone to water-logging
Sticky when wet
Very hard when dried out
Loam Soils
Equal proportions of sand, silt and clay
Good drainage and aeration properties
Retain nutrients and moisture
Easily cultivated
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Revised Geography Syllabus

15. 7.1 SOILS: Characteristics – Structure
Structure refers to the shape and size of the solid grains of the soil
Structure determines
How easily soil is worked for agriculture
How it resists erosion
How easily air, water and living organisms can circulate through the soil
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Revised Geography Syllabus

16. 7.1 SOILS: Characteristics – Structure
Single Grained Structure
Associated with sandy soils
Water, air and organisms can pass through it easily
Roots can spread out into the soil easily
Water retention is poor - Nutrient retention is poor
Prone to leaching
Vulnerable to drought
Single grained
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Revised Geography Syllabus

17. 7.1 SOILS: Characteristics – Structure
Crumby Structure
Associated with good agricultural land – loam soils
Water, air and organisms can pass through crumby soils easily
Roots can spread out into the soil easily
Water retention is good as it is soaked up by the crumbs of soil – Nutrient retention good
Crumb : 1 - 5mm
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Revised Geography Syllabus

18. 7.1 SOILS: Characteristics – Structure
Massive Structure
Usually associated with clay type soils
Water, air and organisms can not pass through this type of soil easily
Roots have difficulty penetrating the large lumps of clay
Soils are often waterlogged after periods of rain
Soil dries into hard clumps after a dry period
Massive
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Revised Geography Syllabus

19. 7.1 SOILS: Characteristics – pH value
pH = potential Hydrogen ions
pH value of 7 = neutral
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Revised Geography Syllabus

20. 7.1 SOILS: Characteristics – pH value
pH is a measure of acidity or alkalinity
Low pH value = Acidic Soil
Leached by heavy rainfall - lacks calcium, nitrogen, magnesium and potassium – stunted growth
Discourages living organisms – reducing rate of plant breakdown
Formation of peat
At very low pH levels aluminium is dissolved by acids – poisonous to some plants
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Revised Geography Syllabus

21. 7.1 SOILS: Characteristics – pH value
High pH value = Alkaline Soil
Develops on limestone landscapes – high concentration of calcium
Deficiency of iron and boron – distorted growth
pH 7 = Neutral Soil
Neutral or slightly acidic soil is most suitable for farming
Encourages growth of bacteria – vital for releasing nutrients from organic material
Nutrients released Phosphorous and Sulphur
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Revised Geography Syllabus

22. Revised Geography Syllabus
7.2 SOILS – Influences
Affected by:
Immediate Environment
Processes Including Human Interference
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Revised Geography Syllabus

23. 7.2 SOILS – Influences Immediate Environment
Topography
Altitude
Slope
Aspect
Climate
Global Pattern of Soils
Parent Material
Rock type
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Revised Geography Syllabus

24. 7.2 SOILS – Global Climate Types
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25. 7.2 SOILS – Global Patterns
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26. 7.2 SOILS – European Patterns
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Revised Geography Syllabus

27. 7.2 SOILS – Influences Immediate Environment - Topography
Horizon Formation
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Revised Geography Syllabus

28. 7.2 SOILS – Influences Processes incl. Human Interference
Natural
Weathering
Soil Erosion
Leaching
Humification
Podzolisation
Laterisation
Calcification
Human
Over-cropping
Over-grazing
Desertification
Conservation
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Revised Geography Syllabus

29. 7.2 SOILS – Influences Processes - Weathering
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30. 7.2 SOILS – Influences Processes - Erosion
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31. 7.2 SOILS Influences - Processes
Humification – organic matter rots to form humus
Calcification – very little leaching allows calcium to accumulate close to the surface forming fertile soil
Salinisation – moisture is brought to the surface by capillary action, but evaporates quickly and the dissolved salts are deposited in the upper layer of soil
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Revised Geography Syllabus

32. 7.2 SOILS Influences – Processes
Leaching – rainwater carries soluble minerals and organic matter down through the soil profile
Podzolisation – leaching by acidic water which can dissolve almost all the soil constituents, may leave the A Horizon infertile and grey in colour
Laterisation – leaching by non-acidic water leaves iron and aluminium close to the surface giving the soil a reddish colour
Gleying – lack of oxygen in waterlogged soils slows down the rotting process and organic matter accumulates at the top of the profile
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Revised Geography Syllabus

33. 7.2 SOILS – Influences Human Interference
Over-cropping
Over-grazing
Desertification
Conservation
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Revised Geography Syllabus

34. 7.2 SOILS – Human Interference
Clearing Bush-land in Australia
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Revised Geography Syllabus

35. 7.2 SOILS – Human Interference
Erosion caused by raindrops on bare land
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Revised Geography Syllabus

36. 7.2 SOILS – Human Interference
Erosion caused by tilling dry land
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Revised Geography Syllabus

37. 7.2 SOILS – Human Interference
Erosion caused by wind
Source: Seafriends.org.nz
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Revised Geography Syllabus

38. 7.2 SOILS – Human Interference
Livestock Damage
Source: Seafriends.org.nz
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39. 7.2 SOILS – Human Interference
Soil Protection
Source: Seafriends.org.nz
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Revised Geography Syllabus

40. 7.2 SOILS – Human Interference
Erosion caused by tilling hill slopes
Source: Seafriends.org.nz
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Revised Geography Syllabus

41. 7.2 SOILS – Human Interference
Contour ploughing
Strip cropping
Source: Seafriends.org.nz
Terracing
Paddy (Padi) fields
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Revised Geography Syllabus

42. 7.2 SOILS – Human Interference
Soil Protection
Source: Seafriends.org.nz
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Revised Geography Syllabus

43. 7.2 SOILS – Human Interference
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44. 7.2 SOILS – Human Interference
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45. 7.2 SOILS – Human Interference
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46. 7.2 SOILS – Human Interference
Desertification – Europe
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47. 7.2 SOILS – Human Interference
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Revised Geography Syllabus

48. Revised Geography Syllabus
7.3 BIOMES – World Regions
Characterised by inter-relationships of:
Climate
Soils
Plants
Animals
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Revised Geography Syllabus

49. 7.3 BIOMES – World Climates Types
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50. Revised Geography Syllabus
7.3 BIOMES – World Regions
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Revised Geography Syllabus

51. Revised Geography Syllabus
7.3 BIOMES – World Regions
Deciduous Forest
Desert
Taiga
Tropical
Rain Forest
Grassland
Tundra
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Revised Geography Syllabus

52. 7.3 BIOMES – World Regions Tropical Rain Forest
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53. 7.3 BIOMES – World Regions Tropical Rain Forest - Climate
Belize - Temps
Belize - Rainfall
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54. 7.3 BIOMES – World Regions Tropical Rain Forest - Climate
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55. 7.3 BIOMES – World Regions Tropical Rain Forest - Soils
Thick leaf layer rots quickly and deeply due to heat and moisture.
Removal of vegetation cover causes leaching.
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Revised Geography Syllabus

56. 7.3 BIOMES – World Regions Tropical Rain Forest - Plants
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Revised Geography Syllabus

57. 7.3 BIOMES – World Regions Tropical Rain Forest - Animals
Squirrel
Black Jaguar
Woolly Monkey
Monkey
Macaw
Owl Butterfly
Grasshopper
Gecko
Source: A Place Out of Time: Tropical Rainforests and the Perils They Face Rhett A. Butler - San Francisco, CA. Unpublished (Mongabay.com)
Boa
Caiman
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Revised Geography Syllabus

58. Revised Geography Syllabus
7.4 BIOMES – World Regions
EFFECTS OF HUMAN ACTIVITIES
Early Settlement – Clearing Forests
Felling of Tropical Rain Forests
Intensive Agriculture
Industrial Development
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Revised Geography Syllabus

59. 7.4 BIOMES – Human Activities Early Settlement – Clearing Forests
European Forests
Irish Forests
Started in Neolithic Age
Mid 1800s almost devoid of forest cover
1900 only 1% forest cover %
EU average 31%
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Revised Geography Syllabus

60. 7.4 BIOMES – Human Activities Early Settlement – Clearing Forests
Country
Forest Cover (% of land area) 2003
Ireland
9.4 %
Netherlands
9.5 %
Denmark
12.7 %
Belgium
22.4 %
Germany
30.2 %
France
31.6 %
Sweden
73.5 %
Finland
75.5 %
Source OECD
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Revised Geography Syllabus

61. 7.4 BIOMES – Human Activities Early Settlement – Clearing Forests
Dark Green: > 40 % cover
Mid Green: 10 – 40 % cover
Light Green: woodland, shrubland and bushland
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Revised Geography Syllabus

62. 7.4 BIOMES – Human Activities Clearing Forests
Change in forested land by region
total land area (m ha)
total forest 1990 (m ha)
total forest 2000 (m ha)
change (m ha)
% change per year
Africa
702.50
649.90
-52.60
-0.70
Asia and the Pacific
734.00
726.30
-7.70
-0.10
Europe
9.30
0.10
Latin America and the Caribbean
964.40
-46.60
-0.50
North America
466.70
470.10
3.40
West Asia
372.40
3.60
3.70
0.00
World
-93.90
-0.24
Source: compiled from FAO 2001b Note: numbers may not add due to rounding
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Revised Geography Syllabus

63. 7.4 BIOMES – Human Activities Clearing Forests
Average Annual %
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Revised Geography Syllabus

64. 7.4 BIOMES – Human Activities Felling Tropical Rain Forests
Importance of Tropical Rain Forests
Home to Tribal Cultures that have survived for thousands of years
Home to 50% of plant and animal species
Winter home to birds that breed in temperate climates
Help to reduce Global CO2 levels
Help to maintain global rain and weather patterns
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Revised Geography Syllabus

65. 7.4 BIOMES – Human Activities Felling Tropical Rain Forests
Reasons for Felling
Firewood, charcoal, building materials, furniture
Conversion to pasture for cattle ranching
Mining for gold, bauxite (aluminium) etc.
Cultivation of Cash Crops
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Revised Geography Syllabus

66. 7.4 BIOMES – Human Activities Felling Tropical Rain Forests
Brazil
Source UNEP
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67. 7.4 BIOMES – Human Activities Felling Tropical Rain Forests
Argentina: Source UNEP
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68. 7.4 BIOMES – Human Activities Felling Tropical Rain Forests
Bolivia
Source: UNEP
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Revised Geography Syllabus

69. 7.4 BIOMES – Human Activities Intensive Agricultural Practices
Bolivia Source: UNEP
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70. 7.4 BIOMES – Human Activities Industrial Development - Urbanisation
% Urban Population by Region
Nearly half the world population now lives in urban areas. Africa, and Asia and the Pacific, are the world’s least urbanized regions, North America, Europe, and Latin America the most urbanized
Source: compiled from United Nations Population Division 2001b
While all regions are still urbanizing, the rate at which most are doing so is falling, although rates are changing little in Africa and are actually increasing in North America
Source: compiled from United Nations Population Division 2001b
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Revised Geography Syllabus
Annual % Increase by Region

71. 7.4 BIOMES – Human Activities Industrial Development - Urbanisation
Distribution of global population (%) by size of settlement,
1975 and 2000
rural areas
< 1 million
1- 5 million
> 5 million
1975
2000
world
62.1 53
25.1
28.5 8
11.6
4.8
6.9
developed regions 30 24
46.8
48.1
13.9
18.5
9.3
9.5
developing regions
73.2
60.1
17.6
23.7 6 10
3.2
6.3
Source: United Nations Population Division 2001a
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Revised Geography Syllabus

72. 7.4 BIOMES – Human Activities Industrial Development - Air Pollution
Trends in Atmospheric Concentrations and
Anthropogenic Emissions of Carbon Dioxide
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Revised Geography Syllabus

73. 7.4 BIOMES – Human Activities Industrial Development – Air Pollution
World Carbon Dioxide Emissions by Region, (Million Metric Tons of Carbon Equivalent)
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Revised Geography Syllabus

74. 7.4 BIOMES – Human Activities Industrial Development – Air Pollution
World Carbon Dioxide Emissions 1999
Metric Tons of Carbon Equivalent per capita
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75. 7.4 BIOMES – Human Activities Industrial Development – Acid Rain
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Revised Geography Syllabus
Source: angelfire.com

76. 7.4 BIOMES – Human Activities Industrial Development – Acid Rain
Effects of Acid Rain
Source: angelfire.com
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Revised Geography Syllabus

77. 7.4 BIOMES – Human Activities Industrial Development – Water Pollution
Pollution of Rivers and Lakes – Faecal Coliforms
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Revised Geography Syllabus

78. 7.4 BIOMES – Human Activities Industrial Development – Water Pollution
Pollution of Rivers and Lakes – pH values
pH 7 is neutral – best quality <6.5 – acidic >7.5 alkaline
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Revised Geography Syllabus

79. 7.4 BIOMES – Human Activities Industrial Development – Water Pollution
Fresh Water Stress (where consumption exceeds 10% of total supply)
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Revised Geography Syllabus

80. 7.4 BIOMES – Human Activities Industrial Development – Water Pollution
Pollution of Rivers and Lakes
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81. 7.4 BIOMES – Human Activities Industrial Development – Water Pollution
Pollution of Rivers and Lakes
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82. 7.4 BIOMES – Human Activities Industrial Development – Water Pollution
Pollution of Coasts and Seas
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83. 7.4 BIOMES – Human Activities Industrial Development - Water Pollution
Pollution of Coasts and Seas
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84. 7.4 BIOMES – Human Activities Industrial Development – Water Pollution
Pollution of Coasts and Seas
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85. 7.4 BIOMES – Human Activities Industrial Development – Water Pollution
Pollution of Coasts and Seas
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86. 7.4 BIOMES – Human Activities Vanishing Wilderness
World Ecosystems
Undisturbed
Partially Disturbed
Human Dominated
51.9 %
24.2 %
23.9 %
Adjusted for Rock, Ice & Barren Land
27 %
36.7 %
36.3 %
Source Hannah et Al 1994
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Revised Geography Syllabus