1. Long-Term Training and Athlete Development
Genadijus Sokolovas, Ph.D., Senior Physiologist
Global Sport Technology, Inc,

2. Top-100 Study
The purpose of this study was to investigate the performances of elite level swimmers based on the USA Swimming’s All-Time Top 100 times.
May early high-level performances limit a swimmer’s progression later in his/her career?

3. Methods
Analysis of USA Swimming’s All-Time Top 100 age group times by girls and boys.
Five age groups: 10-under, 11-12, 13-14, 15-16, and
Swimming events: 100, 200, and 500 freestyle; 100 and 200 backstroke; 100 and 200 breaststroke; 100 and 200 butterfly; and the 200 individual medley.
Calculating the percent of participation.

4. Participation at USA All-Time Top 100 in All Events at Age 17-18 (Females)
Age 10 & under
10.3%
Top 100
Age 11-12
20.3%
Top 100
Age 17-18
36.9%
Top 100
Age 13-14
49.7%
Top 100
Age 15-16

5. Participation for USA All-Time Top 100 in 100 Freestyle at Age 17-18 (Males)
Age 10 & under
13.2%
Top 100
Age 11-12
12.6%
Top 100
Age 17-18
31.1%
Top 100
Age 13-14
53.5%
Top 100
Age 15-16

6. Freestyle Events for Girls

7. Backstroke and Breaststroke Events for Girls

8. Age vs 17-18
There is still a low number of elite swimmers at age for girls and boys.
About half of the elite swimmers in the Top 100 at age were new swimmers who were never ranked in the Top 100 at any age.
This statistics shows that most of the future elite swimmers swim under Top 100 times until age

9. Females vs Males
There is a small difference between elite female and male freestyle swimmers at age and 13-14, where it appears that higher numbers of female freestylers were ranked in the Top 100.
Higher numbers for females may be related to earlier biological maturation in girls.

10. Selection of Main Event by Females
51.6% of elite female swimmers are listed in other events at age 10 and under.
This number decreases with age and reaches 37.9%, 26.6% and 24.9% at age 11-12, and 15-16, respectively.
Most of elite female swimmers select their event at age

11. Selection of Main Event by Males
69.6% of elite male swimmers are listed in other events at age 10 and under.
This number decreases with age and reaches 55.6%, 40.8% and 26.7% at age 11-12, and 15-16, respectively.
The elite male swimmers select their events at age or about 2 years later than elite female swimmers.

12. Conclusion 1
A small number of elite swimmers from the Top 100 at age were ranked in the Top 100 at a younger age. Typically, a little over 10 % were ranked as a 10-under, less than 20% as a year old, a little over 30% as a year old, and about 50% as a year old.

13. Conclusion 2
The analysis shows that most of elite level swimmers were unknown at young ages. About a half of elite swimmers at Top 100 at age are new swimmers, which never were listed at Top 100 at any age. Most of future elite swimmers swim slower than age group champions, especially at ages until years.

14. Conclusion 3
Many participants ranked in the Top 100 as age groupers are not present in the Top 100 as they become an elite swimmer in the age group. It may be related to their early biological maturation and/or a high training volume and intensities at a young age.

15. Conclusion 4
Elite level swimmers change their events during long-term training. Elite female swimmers tend to change their events until the age of Elite male swimmers tend to change their events until the age of

16. What is the Goal in Long-Term Training?
Best performance:
- 10 & under? ? ? ? ?
- at the age of peak performance potential!

17. Average Age of Ten Best Swimmers in History (Freestyle)
Event
Men (years)
Women (years)
50 FR
24.8 ± 2.7
25.3 ± 7.0
100 FR
25.3 ± 3.7
24.6 ± 6.7
200 FR
22.6 ± 2.1
20.8 ± 2.4
400 FR
22.1 ± 2.4
20.0 ± 2.1
1500/800 FR
21.3 ± 2.0
20.1 ± 2.6

18. Average Age of Ten Best Swimmers in History (Backstroke & Breaststroke)
Event
Men (years)
Women (years)
BACKSTROKE
100 BK
23.9 ± 1.7
21.9 ± 3.6
200 BK
23.1 ± 2.2
20.8 ± 3.7
BREASTSTROKE
100 BR
25.4 ± 2.5
21.3 ± 3.9
200 BR
23.6 ± 2.6
21.5 ± 3.3

19. Average Age of Ten Best Swimmers in History (Butterfly & IM)
Event
Men (years)
Women (years)
FLY
100 FL
24.8 ± 3.0
25.1 ± 4.4
200 FL
23.5 ± 1.6
22.4 ± 4.6 IM
200 IM
23.2 ± 1.1
20.5 ± 2.9
400 IM
22.9 ± 2.3
19.6 ± 2.7

20. Age of Peak Performance in Various Sports
Event
Age (years)
Power/Sprint Sports
26-28
Ultra Distance Cycling
37-39
Distance Running
29-32
Distance Swimming
19-21
Sprint Swimming
23-25

21. Average Age of Ten Best Swimmers in History (Male, Free)

22. Average Age of Ten Best Swimmers in History (Female, Free)

23. Swimming Performance Progression

24. Swimming Performance Progression in Long-Term Training

25. Swimming Performance Progression in Long-Term Training
Peak Performance / Performance at age 11
For Females – (71-89%)
For Males – (61-79%)

26. Swimming Performance in Long-Term Training
Time at age 11
Ratios:
Male (61-79%)
Female (71-89%)
Peak performance time

27. Optimal Swimming Performance Progression
Lower level
Upper level

28. Optimal Swimming Performance Progression

29. Optimal Swimming Performance Progression

30. Performance Progression Model

31. Duration of Long-Term Training
Age at Peak Performances
Maintenance of High Performances
“Time Reserve”
to prepare each
athlete to achieve
their individual
maximum potential
Age at the Beginning of Career Training

32. Duration of Long-Term Training in Swimming
Age at the Beginning of Career Training
6-8 years
Age at Peak Performance
18-25 years depending on gender, distance and rate of individual maturation
“Time Reserve” years!!!

33. “Time Reserve” for Men Swimmers (Freestyle)

34. “Time Reserve” for Women Swimmers (Freestyle)

35. Stages of Biological Maturation
Early Childhood and Prepuberty
Girls - until 11 years, Boys - until 12 years
Puberty
Girls years, Boys years
Postpuberty
Girls - after 15 years, Boys - after 16 years

36. 11/11/2018
EARLY CHILDHOOD
Age 4-6:
Kids don’t have good postural and balance skills
Very short attention spans
Imprecise eye movement
There is no advantage to begin training at this age

37. CHILDHOOD Age 6-9: Improved postural and balance skills
11/11/2018
CHILDHOOD
Age 6-9:
Improved postural and balance skills
Good age to begin organized sport practices
Longer attention spans, but still isn’t long enough to focus on long explanation
More precise eye movement
Simple exercises and skills
Difficulty to accomplish complex skills

38. PREPUBERTY Age 10-12: Good postural and balance skills
11/11/2018
PREPUBERTY
Age 10-12:
Good postural and balance skills
Growth in extremities and long bones
Maturational differences between genders and early/late maturers
Easy to learn advanced athletic skills and sport specific technique
More complex exercises and technical drills

39. PUBERTY Age 12-17: Improved attention and decision making skills
11/11/2018
PUBERTY
Age 12-17:
Improved attention and decision making skills
Rapid growth and development (sensitive period). Decrease in strength and power because of rapid growth.
Improved aerobic capacity
Deterioration in postural and balance skills (it is important to continue working on athletic skills and technique at this age)
Greater potential of skeletal-muscular injuries

40. POSTPUBERTY Age 16-19: Appreciation of variety in training sets
11/11/2018
POSTPUBERTY
Age 16-19:
Appreciation of variety in training sets
Improvements in racing skills
Increased muscle mass and tolerance to the high-intensity work (anaerobic capacity)
Higher peak lactates
Increased sprinting ability (strength and power)
Improved cardio-vascular system

41. Sensitive Periods of Development
Physical characteristics and physiological systems develop at different rates during maturation.
During the adolescent growth spurt many parameters show accelerated growth size and strength.
These accelerated phases of development are called “sensitive periods” and represent the fastest rate of development.

42. Anthropometric Parameters in Long-Term Training
“Sensitive Periods”

43. Changes in Height Gain Peak Height Velocity (Puberty)
Initiation of Adolescent
Spurt (Prepuberty)
Deceleration
(Postpuberty)

44. Changes in Weight Gain Peak Weight Velocity (Puberty) Deceleration
(Postpuberty)
Initiation of Adolescent
Spurt (Prepuberty)

45. VO2 max in Young Male Athletes
“Sensitive Period”
4500
4250
4000
3750
3500
Vo2 (ml/min)
3250
3000
Cunningham et al. (1987)
2750
Daniels et al. (1978)
2500
2250
Murase et al. (1981)
2000
Baxter-Jones et al. (1993)
1750 8 10 12 14 16 18 20
Age (yrs)

46. Changes in Aerobic Capacity Gain (Males)
“Sensitive Periods”

47. Changes in Strength Gain (Males)
“Sensitive Periods”

48. Arm Pull Vertical Jump Bent Arm Hang Sit and Reach14 5 12 4 10
kg/yr 8
cm/yr 3 6 2 4 2 1 -3 -2 -1
PHV 1 2 3 -3 -2 -1
PHV 1 2 3
Bent Arm Hang 6
Sit and Reach 2 4 2
s/yrr
cm/yr 1 -3 -2 -1
PHV 1 2 3 -2 -4 -3 -2 -1
PHV 1 2 3
Data from Beunen et al., 1988

49. Progression of Physical Qualities in Career Training

50. Duration of Sensitive Periods

51. Talent ID and Development Age Group Competition

52. Talent ID and Development High School (13-17 yr)

53. Talent ID and Development University (18-22 yr)

54. Collegiate Performance in 2016 Olympics

55. Increased Risk of Injury for Young Athletes

56. Workload Progression in Career Training (Male)
Total - 3,600,000 yrd
Aerobic - 62%
Mix - 22%
Anaerobic - 5%
CP - 1.5%
Distance
Swimmer
Total - 2,700,000 yrd
Aerobic - 59%
Mix - 30%
Anaerobic - 8%
CP - 3%
Sprinter
Total - 380,000 yrd
Aerobic - 90%
Mix - 7%
Anaerobic - 2%
CP - 1%

57. Workload Progression in Career Training (Male Sprinters)

58. Workload Progression in Career Training (Male Sprinters)

59. Dryland Workload Progression in Career Training (Male Sprinters)

60. Total Swimming Workload Volume for Early, Normal, and Late Matured Athletes

61. Stages of Long-Term Training
Preliminary Preparation
Basic Training
Specialization
Peak Performance
Maintenance of High Performance

62. Preliminary Preparation (Girls 7-9, Boys 8-10)
Teaching of exercise technique in various sports
Improvement of interest to compete
Development of flexibility, general (aerobic) endurance, balance
Playing & games method
Recommended maximum number of sessions per week - 3-4
Recommended number of seasons a year - 3 (3 peak performance competitions)

63. Basic Training (Girls 10-12, Boys 10-13)
Teaching of advanced exercise technique
Initial selection of sport and event
Development of aerobic and anaerobic-aerobic (mix) endurance
Development of quickness and agility
Beginning of development of general strength
Recommended maximum number of sessions per week - 6-9
Recommended number of seasons in a year (2-3 peak performance competitions)

64. Specialization vs. Diversification
Diversified sports training during early and middle adolescence appears to be a more effective training strategy in ultimately developing elite-level skills in a specific sport/ event due to a positive transfer of physical and mental skills.
DiFiori et al., 2014

65. Specialization (Girls 12-17, Boys 13-18)
Development of individual exercise technique
Individualization of technical and racing tactics
Development of aerobic-anaerobic mix, anaerobic specific endurance, and general strength
Beginning of development of specific strength and speed
Maintenance of flexibility
Recommended maximum number of sessions per week
Recommended number of seasons in a year (2-3 peak performance competitions)

66. Peak Performance (Girls 16-20, Boys 17-22)
Perfection and stabilization of individual exercise technique and skills
Development of distance specific endurance, specific power
Development of specific strength speed
High volume training
Race simulation of all conditions of competition
Maintenance of individual flexibility
Recommended maximum number of sessions during peak week
Recommended number of seasons in a year - 2 (2 peak performance competitions)

67. Maintenance of High Performance (Girls 18 and older, Boys 20 and older)
Maintenance of individual exercise technique and skills
Maintenance of individual power, endurance, speed, and flexibility
Reduction of total workload volume with increasing of intensity
Maintenance of health
Recommended maximum number of sessions per week
Recommended number of seasons in a year - 2 (2 peak performance competitions)

68. Optimizing Long-Term Training
Measure height at least twice a year. Increase workload volumes accordingly:

69. Optimizing Long-Term Training
Identify early/late maturers:
Early maturers experience early success due to physical growth advantage
Early success does not predict later success
Late maturers often catch up and exceed the performance of early maturers
Keep success in perspective
Develop sets to monitor individual progression

70. Optimizing Long-Term Training
Evaluate distance orientation (sprint, middle distance, distance):
Swimmer 1 Swimmer 2
Best Time on : :55.00
Best Time on : :02.10
Times in Seconds 54.5, sec 55.0, sec
Calculation / /55.0
Ratio 200/

71. Optimizing Long-Term Training
Predict performance progression and make corrections in workload volumes/intensities:

72. THANK YOU FOR YOUR ATTENTION! QUESTIONS?