1. Process management Information maintained by OS for process management
process context
process control block
OS virtualization of CPU for each process.
Context switching
Dispatching loop

2. Process a program in execution
We should know about processes by now.
How does the OS correctly run multiple processes concurrently?
What kind of information to be kept?
What does the OS have to do in order to run processes correctly.

3. Process context Contains all states necessary to run a program
MAX
stack
Contains all states necessary to run a program
The information the process needs to do the job: code, data, stack, heap.
This is known as User level context.
heap
data
text (code)
Process in memory

4. User level context … int aa; char buf[1000]; void foo() { int a; }
MAX
(b, *p) - main
(a) - foo …
int aa;
char buf[1000];
void foo() {
int a; }
main() {
int b;
char *p;
p = new char[1000];
foo();
stack
heap (p)
(char[1000])
data (aa, buf)
text (code)
Process memory

5. Process context Contains all states necessary to run a program
Is the user level context sufficient?
Only if the system runs through one program at a time
The system typically needs to switch back and forth between programs.
R0 = 1
R0 = 2
R2 = R0 + 1
R2 = R0
R2 in P1 is wrong. How to make
It correct?
Save R0 in P1 before switching
Restore R0 in P1 when switching from P2 to P1.
Registers should be a part of process context: the register context!

6. Process context: User level context Register context (R0, R1,…, etc).
Code, data, stack, heap
Register context (R0, R1,…, etc).
What else?
OS resources. E.g open files, signal related data structures, etc.

7. Why is process context important?
To run a process correctly, the process instructions must be executed within the process context!

8. Where is the process context stored?
User level context is in memory.
Other context information is stored in a data structure called process control block.
The OS has a process control block table. For each process, there is one entry in the table.
Process control block also contains other information that the OS needs to manage the processes.
Process status (running, waiting, etc)
Process priority ……

9. An example PCB
Figure 3.3

10. OS CPU abstraction What does the OS have to do?
Embed the process instruction sequence into hardware instruction sequence.
Process X instructions: x0, x1, x2, ….
Process Y instructions: y0, y1, y2, …
Process Z instructions: z0, z1, z2, …
Hardware instructions? x0, x1, x2, y0, y1, y2, z0, z1, z2, x3, x4, x5, …
Does this embedding work?
No!! Instructions in a process should only
be executed within the process’s context to be correct.

11. OS CPU abstraction Process X instructions: x0, x1, x2, ….
Process Y instructions: y0, y1, y2, …
Process Z instructions: z0, z1, z2, …
x0, x1, x2, [store X’s context], [restore Y’s context] y0, y1, y2…
OS must do this to keep programs execute
within its context: Context switching

13. Dispatching Loop
The hardware view of the system execution: dispatching loop
LOOP
Run process
Save process states
Choose a new process to run
Load states for the chosen process
Context
Switch:
Dispatcher
code
Scheduling

14. Simple? Not Quite…
How does the dispatcher (OS) regain control after a process starts running?
What states should a process save?
How does the dispatcher choose the next process?

15. How Does the Dispatcher Regain Control?
Two ways:
Internal events
A process is waiting for I/O
A process is waiting for some other process
Yield—a process gives up CPU voluntarily
External events
Interrupts—a complete disk request

16. Process States A process is typically in one of the three states
Running: has the CPU
Blocked: waiting for I/O or another thread
Ready to run: on the ready list, waiting for the CPU

17. Figure 3.2

18. How Does the Dispatcher Choose the Next process?
The dispatcher keeps a list of processes that are ready to run
If no processes are ready
Dispatcher just loops
Otherwise, the dispatcher uses a scheduling algorithm to find the next process. 18

19. Multiprogramming

20. CPU Scheduler
Selects from among the processes in memory that are ready to execute, and allocates the CPU to one of them
CPU scheduling decisions may take place when a process:
1. Switches from running to waiting state
2. Switches from running to ready state
3. Switches from waiting to ready
4. Terminates 20

21. Scheduling Criteria CPU utilization – keep the CPU as busy as possible
Throughput – # of processes that complete their execution per time unit
Turnaround time – amount of time to execute a particular process
Waiting time – amount of time a process has been waiting in the ready queue
Response time – amount of time it takes from when a request was submitted until the first response is produced. 21

22. Scheduling Algorithm Optimization Criteria
Max CPU utilization
Max throughput
Min turnaround time
Min waiting time
Min response time 22

23. First-Come, First-Served (FCFS) Scheduling
Process Burst Time
P1 24
P2 3
P3 3
Suppose that the processes arrive in the order: P1 , P2 , P3 The Gantt Chart for the schedule is: P1 P2 P3 24 27 30
Waiting time for P1 = 0; P2 = 24; P3 = 27
Average waiting time: ( )/3 = 17 23

24. FCFS Scheduling (Cont)
Suppose that the processes arrive in the order
P2 , P3 , P1
The Gantt chart for the schedule is:
Waiting time for P1 = 6; P2 = 0; P3 = 3
Average waiting time: ( )/3 = 3
Much better than previous case
Convoy effect short process behind long process P1 P3 P2 6 3 30 24

25. Shortest-Job-First (SJF) Scheduling
Associate with each process the length of its next CPU burst. Use these lengths to schedule the process with the shortest time
SJF is optimal – gives minimum average waiting time for a given set of processes
The difficulty is knowing the length of the next CPU request 25

26. Example of SJF Process Arrival Time Burst Time P1 0.0 6 P2 0.0 8
SJF scheduling chart
Average waiting time = ( ) / 4 = 7 P4 P3 P1 3 16 9 P2 24 26

27. Priority Scheduling
A priority number (integer) is associated with each process
The CPU is allocated to the process with the highest priority (smallest integer  highest priority)
Preemptive
Non preemptive
SJF is a priority scheduling where priority is the predicted next CPU burst time
Problem  Starvation – low priority processes may never execute
Solution  Aging – as time progresses increase the priority of the process 27

28. Round Robin (RR)
Each process gets a small unit of CPU time (time quantum), usually milliseconds. After this time has elapsed, the process is preempted and added to the end of the ready queue.
If there are n processes in the ready queue and the time quantum is q, then each process gets 1/n of the CPU time in chunks of at most q time units at once. No process waits more than (n-1)q time units.
Performance
q large  FIFO
q small  q must be large with respect to context switch, otherwise overhead is too high 28

29. Example of RR with Time Quantum = 4
Process Burst Time
P1 24
P2 3
P3 3
The Gantt chart is:
Typically, higher average turnaround than SJF, but better response P1 P2 P3 4 7 10 14 18 22 26 30 29

30. Time Quantum and Context Switch Time30

31. Multilevel Queue
Ready queue is partitioned into separate queues: foreground (interactive) background (batch)
Each queue has its own scheduling algorithm
foreground – RR
background – FCFS
Scheduling must be done between the queues
Fixed priority scheduling; (i.e., serve all from foreground then from background). Possibility of starvation.
Time slice – each queue gets a certain amount of CPU time which it can schedule amongst its processes; i.e., 80% to foreground in RR
20% to background in FCFS 31

32. Multilevel Queue Scheduling32

33. Multilevel Feedback Queue
A process can move between the various queues; aging can be implemented this way
Multilevel-feedback-queue scheduler defined by the following parameters:
number of queues
scheduling algorithms for each queue
method used to determine when to upgrade a process
method used to determine when to demote a process
method used to determine which queue a process will enter when that process needs service 33

34. Example of Multilevel Feedback Queue
Three queues:
Q0 – RR with time quantum 8 milliseconds
Q1 – RR time quantum 16 milliseconds
Q2 – FCFS
Scheduling
A new job enters queue Q0 which is served FCFS. When it gains CPU, job receives 8 milliseconds. If it does not finish in 8 milliseconds, job is moved to queue Q1.
At Q1 job is again served FCFS and receives 16 additional milliseconds. If it still does not complete, it is preempted and moved to queue Q2. 34

35. Multilevel Feedback Queues35