1. Table of Contents Section 1 Carbon Compounds
Biochemistry
Table of Contents
Section 1 Carbon Compounds
Section 2 Molecules of Life

2. Student Learning Goals – Macromolecules Goal: Describe the basic molecular structures and primary functions of the four major categories of biological macromolecules. Students will: 4 – Describe the significance and importance of the basic molecular structures and primary functions of the four major categories of biological macromolecules. 3 - Describe the basic molecular structures and primary functions of the four major categories of biological macromolecules. 2 – Explain the basic molecular structures and primary functions of the four major categories of biological macromolecules. 1 – Recognize the four major categories of biological macromolecules.

3. Objectives Carbon Compounds
Distinguish between organic and inorganic compounds.
Explain the importance of carbon bonding in biological molecules.
Summarize how large carbon molecules are synthesized and broken down.
Describe how the breaking down of ATP supplies energy to drive chemical reactions.

4. Carbon Bonding (add this to your notes)
Carbon Compounds
Carbon Bonding (add this to your notes)
Most inorganic compounds do not contain carbon atoms.
Are found in nonliving things

5. Carbon Bonding (add this to your notes)
Organic compounds contain carbon atoms and are found in living things.
Contain C atoms in their cmpds
Produced by living plants & animals
Can also be made in a lab (synthetically)

6. Carbon Bonding
Living organisms are made up of molecules that consist of Carbon and other elements such as H
and O

7. Carbon bonding
Carbon atoms can readily form four covalent bonds with other atoms including other carbon atoms. (THIS MAKES “C” UNIQUE TO OTHER ELEMENTS!)
The carbon bonds allow the carbon atoms to form a wide variety of simple and complex organic compounds.

8. Carbon bonding
Carbon atoms can readily form four covalent bonds with other atoms including other carbon atoms.
The more bonds between molecules, the stronger the bond to hold the cmpd together

9. Carbon bonding
These kinds of bonding occur through covalent bonding (sharing of e-’s); In the forms of single, double, or triple bonds
The more bonds between molecules, the stronger the bond to hold the cmpd together
Energy is stored between these bonds

10. Carbon Compounds
Carbon Bonding

11. For example: Glucose + Fructose → Sucrose
Carbon Compounds
Large Carbon Molecules
Many C cmpds are built from smaller, simpler molecules
Monomers - simple C based molecules
Can bond in long chain
- Can bond to one another creating a 6 sided ring
For example: Glucose + Fructose → Sucrose
Polymers – molecules made of repeatedly linked units

12. Carbon Compounds
Energy Currency
Adenosine triphosphate (ATP) stores and releases energy during cell processes, enabling organisms to function.

13. ATP – How It Works ATP works by losing the endmost phosphate group
Instructed to do so by an enzyme
This reaction releases a lot of energy
The organism can then use the energy to build proteins, contact muscles, etc.
The reaction product is adenosine diphosphate (ADP)
ADP can then be further reduced to AMP for the purpose of providing more energy to run reactions

14. Carbon Compounds
Comparing ADP and ATP

15. Carbon Compounds
Energy Currency
Adenosine triphosphate (ATP) stores and releases energy during cell processes, enabling organisms to function.
REMEMBER: Every time a bond in ATP breaks, energy is released and the molecule is reduced to ADP.
Keep in mind – ADP can also join an addition Phosphate group to convert to ATP

16. Objectives Molecules of Life
Distinguish between monosaccharides, disaccharides,and polysaccharides.
Explain the relationship between amino acids and protein structure.
Describe the induced fit model of enzyme action.
Compare the structure and function of each of the different types of lipids.
Compare the nucleic acids DNA and RNA.

17. Molecules of Life
Carbohydrates
Carbohydrates are organic compounds composed of carbon, hydrogen, and oxygen in a ratio of about one carbon to two hydrogen atoms to one oxygen atom.
Most macromolecules are formed by a process known as polymerization, in which large compounds are built by joining smaller ones together.

18. Carbohydrates
Carbohydrates are a source of energy and are used as structural materials in organisms.
The general formula for a monosaccharide is CH2O
1:2:1 ratio

19. Carbohydrates con’t Monosaccharides
Carbohydrates are made up of monomers called monosaccharides.
Ex: Glucose, Fructose, Galactose (ALL structured in a 1:2:1 ratio, but the molecules are arranged differently)
Glucose – main energy supply for cells
Fructose – found in fruits & is the sweetest of the simple sugars
Galactose – found in milk

20. Carbohydrates con’t
Glucose, fructose and galactose all have the same chemical formula (C6H12O6), but have structural differences, resulting in different properties among the 3 cmpds.

21. Carbohydrates con’t
When 2 monosaccharide molecules are chemically joined, a double sugar or disaccharide is formed
As the 2 molecules join, a molecule of H2O is produced during the process in addition to the double sugar

22. Molecules of Life
Carbohydrates

23. Carbohydrates, continued
Molecules of Life
Carbohydrates, continued
Monosaccharides (saccharide = SUGAR)
Carbohydrates are made up of monomers called monosaccharides.

24. Carbohydrates, continued
Molecules of Life
Carbohydrates, continued
Disaccharides and Polysaccharides
Two monosaccharides join to form a double sugar called a disaccharide.
A complex sugar, or polysaccharide, is made of three or more monosaccharides.
Ex: Fructose + Glucose → Sucrose
(mono) (mono) (disaccharide)

25. Molecules of Life
Disaccharides

26. Polysaccharides
Animals store glucose in the form of the disaccharide, glycogen
Glycogen – hundreds of glucose molecules linked together
Glucose comes from food that is stored in the liver & in muscles as glycogen to be used for quick energy

27. Polysaccharides con’t
Plants make a large polysaccharide called cellulose
Cellulose gives strength and rigidity to plant cells;
making up 50% of wood

28. To summarize……

29. Large Carbon Molecules
Carbon Compounds
Large Carbon Molecules
Many C cmpds are built from smaller, simpler molecules
Monomers - simple C based molecules
- Can bond in long chain
- Can bond to one another creating a 6 sided ring
- Can be combined to form a more complex molecule
For example:
Glucose Fructose → Sucrose
(simple sugar) (simple sugar) → (more complex sugar)
(disaccharide)

30. Macromolecules
Many of the organic compounds in living cells are macromolecules, or “giant molecules,” made from thousands or even hundreds of thousands of smaller molecules.
Most macromolecules are formed by a process known as polymerization, in which large compounds are built by joining smaller ones together.

31. Macromolecules
The smaller units, or monomers, join together to form polymers.
The monomers in a polymer may be identical or different.

32. Large Carbon Molecules
Likewise, more complex sugars can be broken down to more simple sugars
Sucrose → Fructose Glucose
(more complex sugar) → (simple sugar) + (simple sugar)
Polymers – molecules made of repeatedly linked units (polymerization) ie: cellulose
Cellulose - a long chain of linked sugar molecules that gives wood strength.
It is also the main component of plant cell walls, and the basic building block for many textiles like paper.

33. PROTEINS

34. Molecules of Life
Proteins
Proteins are organic compounds composed mainly of Carbon, Hydrogen, Oxygen, and Nitrogen.
Proteins have many functions including structural, immune or defensive, and catalytic roles.

35. Amino Acids Amino Acids
Molecules of Life
Amino Acids
Amino Acids
Proteins are made up of monomers called amino acids. (They are the building blocks of proteins)
The sequence of amino acids determines a protein’s shape and function
There are 20 different amino acids

36. Amino acids con’t
Amino acids all share the same basic structure, with the exception of the “R” group
Each a.a has a central “C” group, carboxyl group, an amino group as part of their composition
The “R” group is what makes each amino acids different

37. Amino acids con’t
Each a.a. has a central “C” group, carboxyl group, an amino group, a single hydrogen + an “R” group

38. Chapter 3 Proteins, continued Dipeptides and Polypeptides
Section 2 Molecules of Life
Chapter 3
Proteins, continued
Dipeptides and Polypeptides
Two amino acids are joined by peptide bonds to form a dipeptide.
A long chain of amino acids is called a polypeptide.

39. Amino acids con’t Polypeptides are very long chains of a.a.
Proteins are made of 1 or more polypeptide molecules
Examples of structural functions of proteins: hair, skin & muscle

40. Section 2 Molecules of Life
Chapter 3
Amino Acid

41. Molecules of Life
Structure of Proteins

42. Energy and Chemical Reactions
Reactants are substances that enter chemical reactions.
Products are substances produced by chemical reactions.

43. LIPIDS

44. Molecules of Life
Lipids
Lipids are nonpolar molecules that store energy and are an important part of cell membranes.
Lipids do not dissolve in water
Ex: Triglycerides, phosphates, steroids, waxes and pigments

45. Lipids Lipids have a higher ratio of C, H & O than do carbohydrates
Molecules of Life
Lipids
Lipids have a higher ratio of C, H & O than do carbohydrates
Because lipid molecules have larger numbers of C-H bonds/g than any other organic compound, they store more energy/g

46. Molecules of Life
Fats

47. Lipids, continued Fatty Acids
Molecules of Life
Lipids, continued
Fatty Acids
Most lipids contain fatty acids, unbranched carbon molecules.
Both ends of the fatty acid molecule have different properties
Carboxyl end = hydrophilic (attracts water)
Hydrocarbon end = hydrophobic (water fearing)

48. Molecules of Life
Fatty Acids

49. Lipids, continued Triglycerides
Molecules of Life
Lipids, continued
Triglycerides
Triglycerides consist of three fatty acids and one molecule of glycerol.
Saturated triglycerides are made of saturated fatty acids
High melting point
hard or solid at room temperature
Ex: butter, fat in red meat

50. Lipids con’t Triglycerides
Unsaturated triglycerides are made of unsaturated fatty acids
Found in plant seeds
Serves as energy source

51. Lipids, continued Phospholipids
Molecules of Life
Lipids, continued
Phospholipids
Consists of 2 fatty acids & 1 glycerol molecule with a phosphate group attached to the third carbon (of the glycerol)

52. Lipids, continued Phospholipids
Molecules of Life
Lipids, continued
Phospholipids
Because the cell membrane is made of lipids (inability to dissolve in water) it forms a barrier between the inside and outside of the cell
Make up cell membranes – made of 2 layers called the lipid bilayer

53. Lipids, continued Waxes
Molecules of Life
Lipids, continued
Waxes
A wax is made of one long fatty acid chain joined to one long alcohol.

54. Lipids, continued Waxes
Molecules of Life
Lipids, continued
Waxes
Useful in plants by forming a protective coating on the outer surfaces
Useful in animals preventing microorganisms from entering the ear canal

55. Lipids con’t
Steroids
A steroid is composed of four fused carbon rings.
Animal use:
Male hormone, testosterone
Cholesterol – needed by the body for nerve & other cells to function normally
Is also a component of the cell membrane

56. Nucleic Acids (DNA & RNA)
Molecules of Life
Nucleic Acids (DNA & RNA)
A nucleic acid is a large and complex organic molecule that stores and transports information.
DNA – deoxyribonucleic acid
Determines the characteristics of an organism
Directs cell activity

57. Nucleic Acids RNA – ribonucleic acid
Molecules of Life
Nucleic Acids
RNA – ribonucleic acid
Stores & transfers information from DNA essential for manufacturing of proteins
Can act as enzymes

58. Nucleic Acids, continued
Molecules of Life
Nucleic Acids, continued
The nucleic acid deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA) contains genetic information for cell activities.
Ribonucleic acid (RNA) molecules play many key roles in building of proteins and can act as enzymes.

59. Nucleic acids con’t
Both DNA & RNA are polymers, made of thousands of linked monomers called nucleotides
Nucleotides – 3 main components
A phosphate group
A 5 carbon sugar
A ring shaped nitrogenous base
EX: Adenine, Thymine, Cytosine, Guanine
Example of a nucleotide = ATP

60. Structure of Nucleic Acids
Molecules of Life
Structure of Nucleic Acids

61. Molecules of Life
Nucleic Acids

62. Molecules of Life
DNA Overview

63. Ribonucleic Acid (RNA)
Molecules of Life
Ribonucleic Acid (RNA)

64. Energy and Chemical Reactions
Section 2 Energy
Energy and Chemical Reactions

65. Energy and Chemical Reactions, continued
Activation Energy
Enzymes lower the amount of activation energy necessary for a reaction to begin in living systems.

66. Enzymes are a type of protein
Molecules of Life
Enzymes are a type of protein
Enzymes
Enzymes speed up chemical reactions and bind to specific substrates.
RNA or protein molecules can act as biological catalysts – critical for the functioning of cells
The binding of a substrate with an enzyme causes a change in the enzyme’s shape and reduces the activation energy of the reaction.

67. Enzymes con’t
The fit between the substrate and enzyme will dictate the enzyme reaction
Enzymes have folds or active sites with a shape that allows the substrate to fit or link into the active site;
(Similar to a key that fits a PARTICULAR ignition on a car engine.)
After the reaction, the enzyme releases the product and remains unchanged

68. Enzymes con’t An enzyme may not work if an environment changes
For ex: change in temperature or pH can cause a change in the shape of the enzyme or substrate
If this occurs, the reaction that the enzyme would have catalyzed cannot occur

69. Molecules of Life
Enzyme Activity