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Biochemistry of Cells.

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Presentation on theme: "Biochemistry of Cells."— Presentation transcript:

1 Biochemistry of Cells

2 Uses of Organic Molecules
Americans consume an average of 140 pounds of sugar per person per year Cellulose, found in plant cell walls, is the most abundant organic compound on Earth

3 Uses of Organic Molecules
A typical cell in your body has about 2 meters of DNA A typical cow produces over 200 pounds of methane gas each year

4 Carbon-based Molecules
Although a cell is mostly water, the rest of the cell consists mostly of carbon-based molecules Organic chemistry is the study of carbon compounds

5 Carbon is a Versatile Atom
It has four electrons in an outer shell that holds eight Carbon can share its electrons with other atoms to form up to four covalent bonds

6 Hydrocarbons The simplest carbon compounds …
Contain only carbon & hydrogen atoms

7 Carbon can use its bonds to::
Attach to other carbons Form an endless diversity of carbon skeletons

8 The hydrocarbons of fat molecules provide energy for our bodies
Large Hydrocarbons: Are the main molecules in the gasoline we burn in our cars The hydrocarbons of fat molecules provide energy for our bodies

9 Shape of Organic Molecules
Each type of organic molecule has a unique three-dimensional shape The shape determines its function in an organism

10 Giant Molecules - Polymers
Large molecules are called polymers Polymers are built from smaller molecules called monomers Biologists call them macromolecules

11 Examples of Polymers Proteins Lipids Carbohydrates Nucleic Acids

12 Most Macromolecules are Polymers
Polymers are made by stringing together many smaller molecules called monomers Nucleic Acid Monomer

13 This process joins two sugar monomers to make a double sugar
Linking Monomers Cells link monomers by a process called dehydration synthesis (removing a molecule of water) Remove H H2O Forms Remove OH This process joins two sugar monomers to make a double sugar

14 Breaking Down Polymers
Cells break down macromolecules by a process called hydrolysis (adding a molecule of water) Water added to split a double sugar

15 Macromolecules in Organisms
There are four categories of large molecules in cells: Carbohydrates Lipids Proteins Nucleic Acids

16 Carbohydrates Carbohydrates include:
Small sugar molecules in soft drinks Long starch molecules in pasta, rice, and potatoes

17 Monosaccharides: Called simple sugars
Include glucose, fructose, & galactose Have the same chemical, but different structural formulas C6H12O6

18 Monosaccharides Glucose is found in sports drinks
Fructose is found in fruits Honey contains both glucose & fructose Galactose is called “milk sugar”

19 In aqueous (watery) solutions, monosaccharides form ring structures
Glucose (Draw this one)

20 Cellular Fuel Monosaccharides are in the main fuel that cells use for cellular work ATP

21 Disaccharides A disaccharide is a double sugar
They’re made by joining two monosaccharides Involves removing a water molecule (dehydration)

22 Common disaccharides include:
Sucrose (table sugar) Lactose (Milk Sugar) Maltose (Grain sugar)

23 Disaccharides Maltose is composed of 2 glucose molecules
Sucrose is composed of glucose + fructose Maltose is composed of 2 glucose molecules Lactose is made of galactose + glucose GLUCOSE

24 Polysaccharides Complex carbohydrates
Composed of many sugar monomers linked together Polymers of monosaccharide chains

25 Examples of Polysaccharides
Glucose Monomer Starch Glycogen Cellulose

26 Starch Starch is an example of a polysaccharide in plants
Plant cells store starch for energy Potatoes and grains are major sources of starch in the human diet

27 Glycogen Glycogen is an example of a polysaccharide in animals
Animals store excess sugar in the form of glycogen Glycogen is similar in structure to starch

28 Cellulose Cellulose is the most abundant organic compound on Earth
It forms cable-like fibrils in the tough walls that enclose plants It is a major component of wood It is also known as dietary fiber

29 Cellulose SUGARS

30 Dietary Cellulose Most animals cannot derive nutrition from fiber
They have bacteria in their digestive tracts that can break down cellulose

31 Sugars in Water Simple sugars and double sugars dissolve readily in water WATER MOLECULE They are hydrophilic, or “water-loving” SUGAR MOLECULE

32 Lipids Lipids are hydrophobic –”water fearing” Do NOT mix with water
Includes fats, waxes, steroids, & oils FAT MOLECULE

33 Function of Lipids Fats store energy, help to insulate the body, and cushion and protect organs

34 Types of Fatty Acids Unsaturated fatty acids have less than the maximum number of hydrogens bonded to the carbons (a double bond between carbons) Saturated fatty acids have the maximum number of hydrogens bonded to the carbons (all single bonds between carbons)

35 Types of Fatty Acids Single Bonds in Carbon chain
Double bond in carbon chain

36 Triglyceride Monomer of lipids
Composed of Glycerol & 3 fatty acid chains Glycerol forms the “backbone” of the fat Organic Alcohol

37 Triglyceride Fatty Acid Chains Glycerol

38 Fats in Organisms Most animal fats have a high proportion of saturated fatty acids & exist as solids at room temperature (butter, margarine, shortening)

39 Fats in Organisms Most plant oils tend to be low in saturated fatty acids & exist as liquids at room temperature (oils)

40 Fats Dietary fat consists largely of the molecule triglyceride composed of glycerol and three fatty acid chains Fatty Acid Chain Glycerol Dehydration links the fatty acids to Glycerol

41 Steroids The carbon skeleton of steroids is bent to form 4 fused rings Cholesterol Cholesterol is the “base steroid” from which your body produces other steroids Estrogen Testosterone Estrogen & testosterone are also steroids

42 Synthetic Anabolic Steroids
They are variants of testosterone Some athletes use them to build up their muscles quickly They can pose serious health risks

43 Proteins Proteins are polymers made of monomers called amino acids
All proteins are made of 20 different amino acids linked in different orders Proteins are used to build cells, act as hormones & enzymes, and do much of the work in a cell

44 Four Types of Proteins Storage Structural Contractile Transport

45 20 Amino Acid Monomers

46 Structure of Amino Acids
group Carboxyl group Amino acids have a central carbon with 4 things boded to it: R group Amino group -NH3 Carboxyl group -COOH Hydrogen -H Side groups Side group -R Serine-hydrophillic Leucine -hydrophobic

47 Linking Amino Acids Cells link amino acids together to make proteins
Carboxyl Cells link amino acids together to make proteins Amino Side Group The process is called dehydration synthesis Dehydration Synthesis Peptide bonds form to hold the amino acids together Peptide Bond

48 Proteins as Enzymes Many proteins act as biological catalysts or enzymes Thousands of different enzymes exist in the body Enzymes control the rate of chemical reactions by weakening bonds, thus lowering the amount of activation energy needed for the reaction

49 Enzymes Enzymes are globular proteins.
Their folded conformation creates an area known as the active site. The nature and arrangement of amino acids in the active site make it specific for only one type of substrate.

50 Enzyme + Substrate = Product

51 How the Enzyme Works Enzymes are reusable!!!

52 Primary Protein Structure
The primary structure is the specific sequence of amino acids in a protein Amino Acid

53 Protein Structures Secondary protein structures occur when protein chains coil or fold When protein chains called polypeptides join together, the tertiary structure forms In the watery environment of a cell, proteins become globular in their quaternary structure

54 Protein Structures Hydrogen bond Pleated sheet Polypeptide
(single subunit) Amino acid (a) Primary structure Hydrogen bond Alpha helix (b) Secondary structure (c) Tertiary structure (d) Quaternary structure

55 Denaturating Proteins
Changes in temperature & pH can denature (unfold) a protein so it no longer works Cooking denatures protein in eggs Milk protein separates into curds & whey when it denatures

56 Changing Amino Acid Sequence
Substitution of one amino acid for another in hemoglobin causes sickle-cell disease 2 1 3 6 4 5 (a) Normal red blood cell Normal hemoglobin 2 1 3 6 4 5 (b) Sickled red blood cell Sickle-cell hemoglobin

57 Nucleic Acids Store hereditary information
Contain information for making all the body’s proteins Two types exist --- DNA & RNA

58

59 Nucleic Acids Nucleic acids are polymers of nucleotides Nucleotide
Nitrogenous base (A,G,C, or T) Nucleic acids are polymers of nucleotides Phosphate group Thymine (T) Sugar (deoxyribose) Phosphate Base Sugar Nucleotide

60 Bases Each DNA nucleotide has one of the following bases: Adenine (A)
Thymine (T) Cytosine (C) Adenine (A) Guanine (G) Thymine (T) Cytosine (C) Adenine (A) Guanine (G)

61 Nucleotide Monomers Form long chains called DNA
Backbone Form long chains called DNA Nucleotide Nucleotides are joined by sugars & phosphates on the side Bases DNA strand

62 DNA Two strands of DNA join together to form a double helix Base pair

63 RNA – Ribonucleic Acid Ribose sugar has an extra –OH or hydroxyl group
Nitrogenous base (A,G,C, or U) Ribose sugar has an extra –OH or hydroxyl group Uracil Phosphate group It has the base uracil (U) instead of thymine (T) Sugar (ribose)

64 Summary of Key Concepts

65 Nucleic Acids

66 Macromolecules

67 Macromolecules

68 End

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