1. Operant Conditioning
6.2

2. Operant Conditioning
Psychologist B.F. Skinner helped pioneer research into a form of learning known as operant conditioning, in which individuals learn from the consequences of their actions.
Operant conditioning depends on the use of reinforcements and a schedule to execute them.
The principles of operant conditioning can be applied to help people or animals learn to combine a series of simple steps or actions to form complex behaviors.

3. Operant Conditioning and Reinforcement
In operant conditioning, people and animals learn to do certain things—and not to do others—because of the results of what they do.
They learn from the consequences of their actions.
In operant conditioning, voluntary responses are conditioned.
B.F. Skinner studied operant conditioning by using the “Skinner box.”
His experiment demonstrated reinforcement, or the process by which a stimulus (food) increases the chances that a preceding behavior (a rat pressing a lever) will occur again.
Knowledge of results is often all the reinforcement that people need to learn new skills.

4. Types of Reinforcers Primary and Secondary Reinforcers
Positive and Negative Reinforcers
Positive reinforcers increase the frequency of a behavior.
In positive reinforcement, a person receives something he or she wants following the behavior.
Negative reinforcers increase the frequency of a behavior when they are removed.
(Is this negetive reinforcement or systematic desensitization?
In negative reinforcement, a behavior is reinforced because something unwanted stops happening or is removed following the behavior.
Primary reinforcers are reinforcers that function due to the biological makeup of an organism.
Secondary reinforcers are learned by being paired with primary reinforcers.
Money is a secondary reinforcer because we have learned that it may be exchanged for primary reinforcers like food and shelter.

6. Rewards and Punishments
Like positive reinforcement, rewards help encourage learning.
Some psychologists, however, prefer positive reinforcement because the concept of reinforcement can be explained without trying to guess what an organism will find rewarding.
Punishments are quite different from negative reinforcers.
Punishments are unwanted events that decrease the frequency of the behavior they follow.
Punishments tend to work only when they are guaranteed.
Most psychologists believe it is preferable to reward children for desirable behavior than punish them for unwanted behavior.

8. Schedules of Reinforcement
The effectiveness of a reinforcement depends on the schedule of reinforcement—when and how often the reinforcement occurs.
Continuous and Partial Reinforcement
Continuous reinforcement is the reinforcement of a behavior every time the behavior occurs.
Continuous reinforcement is not always practical or possible.
The alternative is partial reinforcement, which means a behavior is not reinforced every time the behavior occurs.
Interval Schedules
Fixed-interval schedule: a fixed amount of time must elapse between reinforcements
Variable-interval schedule: varying amounts of time go by between reinforcements

10. Ratio Schedule
Fixed-ratio schedule: reinforcement occurs after a fixed number of responses
Variable-ratio schedule: reinforcement occurs after a varying number of responses
Extinction in Operant Conditioning
In operant conditioning, extinction results from repeated performances of the response without reinforcement.

11. Applications of Operant Conditioning
Shaping and Chaining
Programmed Learning
Shaping is a way of teaching complex behaviors in which one first reinforces small steps in the total activity.
Chaining is combining the steps of a sequence to progress toward a final action.
Chaining can be forward or backward.
Chaining can be used to teach complex behavior patterns to animals.
Programmed learning is based on shaping and chaining.
Developed by B.F. Skinner, it assumes that any task can be broken down into small steps.
Programmed learning does not involve punishments.
Instead, it reinforces correct responses.