1. Case Study: Can Animals Talk to Us?
Can animals use language? The answer depends on the definition of language. Experiments with animals and language raise new questions about animal intelligence.
Washoe was one of the first chimpanzees reported to use language.
A bonobo named Kanzi used several hundred words to communicate.
A parrot named Alex learned about 100 words.
Language Studies with Animals
Animals can learn to use signs and symbols and can follow some commands.
Most psychologists use a more restrictive definition of language, however. Under this definition, the question of animal language is less clear.
Conclusions –

2. What do you think?
What did Washoe, Kanzi, and Alex learn to do?
How do you think language should be defined?

5. Language
Language is the communication of ideas through symbols that are arranged according to rules of grammar.
Language contains three basic elements: phonemes, morphemes, and syntax.
Children everywhere learn language in the same sequence of steps. Heredity and environment both affect language learning.
Bilingualism is the ability to understand and speak two languages.

6. Language Main Idea Focus
Language is a complex human activity that allows humans to communicate with others over time and space. It has specific elements, and people acquire language in specific steps.
Focus
What are some of the basic concepts of language?
How do the basic elements of language build on each other?
What are the stages of language development?
Why is bilingualism a significant aspect of modern society?

7. What language is written on the Phaistos Disk?

8. Basic Concepts of Language
Language is the communication of ideas through symbols that are arranged according to the rules of grammar.
Language makes it possible for people to share knowledge.
The psychology of language is called psycholinguistics.
The natural tendency to acquire language can be called a language acquisition device (LAD).
The LAD enables the brain to understand and use grammar and to turn ideas into sentences.
Most people are capable of acquiring language from about 18 months of age to puberty.
Hereditary Influences
Children learn language partly by observing and imitating other people.
Children acquire the languages of their parents and then pass them down to their children.
In this manner, languages pass, with small changes, from generation to generation.
Environmental Influences –

9. What are the two main sources of language acquisition?
Contrast
What are the two main sources of language acquisition?
Answer: hereditary (natural tendency to acquire learning) and environmental (observation and imitation)

11. The Basic Elements of Language
Phonemes
Phonemes are the basic sounds of language.
English uses about 43 phonemes, including some that are not found in other languages.
Morphemes
The units of meaning in a language are called morphemes.
Morphemes are made up of phonemes.
Syntax
The way in which words are arranged to make phrases and sentences is syntax.
The rules for word order are the grammar of a language.
Semantics
The study of meaning in language is called semantics.
Semantics involves the relationship between language and the objects depicted in the language.

12. Language Language Phoneme
our spoken, written, or gestured works and the way we combine them to communicate meaning
Phoneme
in a spoken language, the smallest distinctive sound unit

13. Language Morpheme Grammar
in a language, the smallest unit that carries meaning
may be a word or a part of a word (such as a prefix)
Grammar
a system of rules in a language that enables us to communicate with and understand others

14. Language Semantics Syntax
the set of rules by which we derive meaning from morphemes, words, and sentences in a given language
also, the study of meaning
Syntax
the rules for combining words into grammatically sensible sentences in a given language

15. What are the three basic elements of language?
Check
Describe
What are the three basic elements of language?
Answer: phonemes, morphemes, syntax

16. The Stages of Language Development
The Stages of Language Development
Crying, Cooing, and Babbling
Crying is an effective form of verbal expression for infants.
Infants begin to coo during their second month of age.
Infants begin to babble at about six months of age.
Crying, cooing, and babbling are basic human abilities.
Babies understand much of what other people are saying before they learn to talk.
Words, Words, Words
The learning of words is the start of true language development.
Most early words are nouns.
Research indicates that reading to children increases their vocabulary.

17. Development of Grammar
The first things children say are usually brief, but they have a grammar.
Most children who are nearing two years old will begin to use two-word sentences.
Two-word sentences usually show understanding of grammar.
Children make language errors because of overregularization.

18. Language
We are all born to recognize speech sounds from all the world’s languages
100 90 80 70 60 50 40 30 20 10
Percentage able
to discriminate
Hindi t’s
Hindi-
speaking
adults
6-8
months
8-10
10-12
English-
Infants from English-speaking homes

19. Language Babbling Stage One-Word Stage beginning at 3 to 4 months
the stage of speech development in which the infant spontaneously utters various sounds at first unrelated to the household language
One-Word Stage
from about age 1 to 2
the stage in speech development during which a child speaks mostly in single words

20. Language Two-Word Stage Telegraphic Speech beginning about age 2
the stage in speech development during which a child speaks in mostly two-word statements
Telegraphic Speech
early speech stage in which the child speaks like a telegram-–“go car”--using mostly nouns and verbs and omitting “auxiliary” words

21. Click on the image to play the Interactive.

22. Language Summary of Language Development Month (approximate) Stage 410 12 24
24+
Babbles many speech sounds.
Babbling reveals households
language.
One-word stage.
Two-world, telegraphic speech.
Language develops rapidly into
complete sentences.

23. In what order do children learn language?
Check
Sequence
In what order do children learn language?
Answer: They begin by crying, cooing, and babbling, then learn to use words, and finally develop an understanding of grammar.

24. Bilingualism To speak two languages fluently is to be bilingual.
In general, learning a second language during childhood is easier than learning it later in life.
The bilingual population of the United States is growing.
Many people in other countries speak two or more languages.
Most psychologists believe that bilingualism is good for children’s cognitive development.

26. Language New language learning gets harder with age 100 90 80 70 60 50
Native
3-7
8-10
11-15
17-39
Percentage
correct on
grammar
test
Age at school
New language learning gets harder with age

27. What are some advantages to bilingualism?
Check
Make Generalizations
What are some advantages to bilingualism?
Answer: increased cognitive flexibility in children, improved mastery over child’s native language

28. Cultural Diversity and Psychology
Disappearing Languages
By the year 2100 about half of the world’s 7,000 or so languages are likely to have disappeared. As a result, information about cultures, their history, the environment, and the different ways that people think will also disappear.
Languages die as the few remaining people who speak them die.
Languages are disappearing most rapidly in five regions.
Two of the regions are the upper Pacific Coast and the Southwest.
One reason languages die out is because of the influence of “predator” languages.
When a language is lost, so is an entire culture.
Different ways of thinking and different ways of using language are also lost.
Many countries are working to save or revive dying languages. –

31. Thinking Critically What are three reasons why languages are dying?
Do you think that the English language reveals unique features of our culture? If so, what are they?

32. Language
Genes design the mechanisms for a language, and experience activates them as it modifies the brain.

33. Language Linguistic Determinism
Whorf’s hypothesis that language determines the way we think

34. Language
The interplay of thought and language

35. Glance Understanding Thinking
Thinking is the mental activity that allows us to understand, process, and communicate information.
The basic units of thought include symbols, concepts, and prototypes.
There are three kinds of thinking: convergent, divergent, and metacognition.

36. Understanding Thinking
Main Idea
Thinking is the mental activity that allows humans to process, understand, and communicate information. There are three types of thinking: convergent, divergent, and metacognitive.
Focus
What are some basic elements related to thinking?
How do the three types of thinking differ?

37. Thinking Cognition Cognitive Psychologists
mental activities associated with thinking, knowing, remembering, and communicating
Cognitive Psychologists
study these mental activities
concept formation
problem solving
decision making
judgment formation

38. Animal Thinking and Language
Direction of nectar source
The straight-line part of the dance points in the direction of a nectar source, relative to the sun.

39. Animal Thinking and Language
Gestured Communication

40. Animal Thinking and Language
Is this really language?

41. How do you know a sign warns of danger even though you don't read Turkish?

42. Basic Elements of Thinking
Thinking is the mental activity that is involved in the understanding, processing, and communicating of information.
Thinking is made possible through units of thought that include symbols, concepts, and prototypes.
A concept is a mental structure used to categorize objects, people, or events that share similar characteristics.
People organize concepts into hierarchies.
People learn concepts through experience.
Concepts
A symbol is an object or an act that stands for something else.
Letters and words are symbols.
Mental images are symbols.
Symbols help us think about things that are not present.
Symbols –

43. Prototypes
A prototype is an example of a concept that best exemplifies the characteristics of that concept.
Prototypes help us categorize the world and process information about it.
Without prototypes, people might have to examine unfamiliar elements as if they were totally new.

44. What are three basic elements related to thinking?
Check
Identify
What are three basic elements related to thinking?
Answer: symbols, concepts, and prototypes

45. Three Kinds of Thinking
In general people think in three ways: convergent, divergent, and metacognitive.
Convergent thinking is thought limited to facts.
We use convergent thinking to find one solution for a problem or task.
Developing rules and following them is one example of convergent thinking.
Convergent thinking is not particularly creative.
Convergent
Divergent thinking allows the mind to associate more freely to various elements of a problem.
Divergent thinking is at the base of creativity.
Divergent thinking typically results in multiple solutions.
Divergent –

46. Metacognition
Metacognition consists of planning, evaluating, and monitoring mental activities.
It is thinking about thinking.
It has two different aspects: metacognitive knowledge and metacognitive experiences.

48. In what ways are the three ways of thinking different?
Check
Contrast
In what ways are the three ways of thinking different?
Answer: Convergent thinking is directed toward achieving one solution; divergent thinking is open-ended, typically resulting in multiple solutions; metacognition is thinking about thinking—for example, planning a task and then evaluating one’s performance.

49. Thinking Concept Prototype
mental grouping of similar objects, events, ideas, or people
Prototype
mental image or best example of a category
matching new items to the prototype provides a quick and easy method for including items in a category (as when comparing feathered creatures to a prototypical bird, such as a robin)

50. Thinking
Algorithm
methodical, logical rule or procedure that guarantees solving a particular problem
contrasts with the usually speedier– but also more error-prone--use of heuristics

51. Thinking
Heuristic
simple thinking strategy that often allows us to make judgments and solve problems efficiently
usually speedier than algorithms
more error-prone than algorithms

52. Heuristics Representativeness Heuristic
judging the likelihood of things in terms of how well they seem to represent, or match, particular prototypes
may lead one to ignore other relevant information

53. Heuristics Availability Heuristic
estimating the likelihood of events based on their availability in memory
if instances come readily to mind (perhaps because of their vividness), we presume such events are common
Example: airplane crash

54. S P L O Y O C H Y G Thinking Unscramble Algorithm Heuristic
all 907,208 combinations
Heuristic
throw out all YY combinations
other heuristics?

55. Thinking Insight Confirmation Bias Fixation
sudden and often novel realization of the solution to a problem
contrasts with strategy-based solutions
Confirmation Bias
tendency to search for information that confirms one’s preconceptions
Fixation
inability to see a problem from a new perspective
impediment to problem solving

56. The Matchstick Problem
How would you arrange six matches to form four equilateral triangles?

57. The Three-Jugs Problem
Using jugs A, B, and C, with the capacities shown, how would you measure out the volumes indicated?

58. The Candle-Mounting Problem
Using these materials, how would you mount the candle on a bulletin board?

59. Thinking Mental Set tendency to approach a problem in a particular way
especially a way that has been successful in the past but may or may not be helpful in solving a new problem

60. Thinking Functional Fixedness
tendency to think of things only in terms of their usual functions
impediment to problem solving

61. Thinking Overconfidence tendency to be more confident than correct
tendency to overestimate the accuracy of one’s beliefs and judgments

62. Thinking Framing the way an issue is posed
how an issue is framed can significantly affect decisions and judgments
Example: What is the best way to market ground beef-- as 25% fat or 75% lean?

63. Thinking Belief Bias Belief Perseverance
the tendency for one’s preexisting beliefs to distort logical reasoning
sometimes by making invalid conclusions seem valid or valid conclusions seem invalid
Belief Perseverance
clinging to one’s initial conceptions after the basis on which they were formed has been discredited

64. Artificial Intelligence
designing and programming computer systems
to do intelligent things
to simulate human thought processes
intuitive reasoning
learning
understanding language

65. Artificial Intelligence
Computer Neural Networks
computer circuits that mimic the brain’s interconnected neural cells
performing tasks
learning to recognize visual patterns
learning to recognize smells

66. Current Research in Psychology
Automatic Thought Processes
How we think has long been of interest to psychologists. How much of our thinking is done consciously? Do we really think about every single thing we do? Do we deliberately make choices in all our actions? Current research indicates that the answer is no. (Hassin, et. al, eds., 2006)
Subconscious thought processes are receiving new attention in the field of psychology.
Example: Psychologist John Bargh believes that some of our thinking is nonconscious and automatic.
Experiments have demonstrated the automatic thought process.
Some researchers call automatic thinking “thinking lite.”
Bargh suggests that automatic thought processes are “mental butlers” that anticipate and take care of some tasks for us without being asked. –

68. Thinking Critically
Think about a situation you had not encountered before. How did your behavior at that time reflect the theory about automatic thought?
What are some dangers of automatic thought?

69. At a Glance Problem Solving
Problem solving involves a series of processes, including analyzing the problem, breaking it into component parts, and establishing goals.
Algorithms and heuristics are general approaches to problem solving.
There are specific methods of problem solving, including systematic searching, trial and error, difference reduction, means-end analysis, working backward, and use of analogy.

70. Problem Solving Main Idea Focus
Solving problems can be done in logical and planned ways to achieve the best results.
Focus
What are two basic approaches to problem solving?
How can certain methods help with problem solving?
Why do obstacles to problem solving occur?
What is the connection between problem solving and creativity?

71. How do you pick up a ship?

72. Approaches to Problem Solving
Algorithms
An algorithm is a specific procedure that, when used properly and in the right circumstances, will always lead to the solution of a problem.
Mathematical formulas are examples of algorithms.
One kind of complex algorithm is a systematic search.
Heuristics
Algorithms are guaranteed to work, but they are not always practical.
This is why people use heuristics for many types of problems.
Heuristics are rules of thumb that often, but not always, help us solve problems.
They are shortcuts that are faster than algorithms, but they are not always reliable.

73. What are two basic processes used in problem-solving?
Check
Recall
What are two basic processes used in problem-solving?
Answer: Algorithms and heuristics are two basic processes used in problem-solving.

76. Problem-Solving Methods
Trial and Error
Somewhat similar to systematic searching, but more haphazard and less reliable.
Difference Reduction
Difference reduction is a problem-solving method in which we identify our goal, where we are in relation to it, and the direction we must go to move closer to it.
The aim is to reduce the difference between a present situation in which a problem is unsolved to a desired situation in which the problem is solved.
Not always a reliable method.

77. Means-End Analysis Working Backward
Means-end analysis is a heuristic problem-solving technique.
In means-end analysis, certain things we do (means) will have certain results (ends).
Focus on the knowledge that a particular action will have a particular result.
Working Backward
Involves breaking a problem down into parts and dealing with each part individually.
Starts by examining the final goal, then works back to determine the best course of action.
Very useful when the goal is known but the way to achieve it is not.

78. Analogies
An analogy is a similarity between two or more items, events, or situations.
When people have successfully solved one problem, they may try to use the same approach in solving another problem if it is similar enough to the first one.

79. What are five problem-solving methods?
Check
Identify
What are five problem-solving methods?
Answer: trial and error, difference reduction, means-end analysis, working backward, analogies

80. Obstacles to Problem Solving
Mental Sets
The tendency to respond to a new problem with an approach that was successfully used with similar problems is called mental set.
Mental set can get in the way of problem-solving.
Functional Fixedness
Another obstacle to problem solving is called functional fixedness, which is the tendency to think of an object as being useful only for the function that the object is usually used for.
Functional fixedness can interfere with finding a solution to a problem.

81. In what ways is functional fixedness a type of mental set?
Check
Compare
In what ways is functional fixedness a type of mental set?
Answer: As with mental set, functional fixedness brings a preexisting attitude or approach to solving a problem.

82. Problem Solving and Creativity
Flexibility
Flexibility is the ability to adapt to new, different, or changing situations.
Flexibility leads to original thinking.
Recombination
Recombination is the mental rearrangement of elements of a problem.

83. Insight and Incubation
Insight gives us sudden understanding of a problem.
The incubation effect is the tendency to arrive at a solution after a period of time away from the problem.

85. What are some methods for solving problems creatively?
Check
Describe
What are some methods for solving problems creatively?
Answer: flexibility, recombination, insight, incubation

86. At a Glance Reasoning and Decision Making
Reasoning is the use of information to reach conclusions. There are two main types of reasoning: deductive and inductive.
People use a variety of methods to make decisions, including using a balance sheet and some types of heuristics.

87. Reasoning and Decision Making
Main Idea
Deductive and inductive reasoning are used in the decision-making process. Various strategies can help us make decisions.
Reading Focus
What is deductive reasoning?
What are the steps in inductive reasoning?
When can weighing costs and benefits be helpful?
What are some shortcuts in decision making?

88. How does a pitcher make quick decisions?

89. Deductive Reasoning
Reasoning is the use of information to reach conclusions. There are two main types of reasoning: deductive reasoning and inductive reasoning.
In deductive reasoning, the conclusion is true if the premises are true.
A premise is an idea or statement that provides the basic information that allows us to draw conclusions.

90. What is one problem with using deductive reasoning?
Check
Identify
What is one problem with using deductive reasoning?
Answer: The premises must be true to reach an accurate solution.

91. Inductive Reasoning
In deductive reasoning, we usually start out with a general statement or principle and reason down to specifics that fit that statement or principle.
In inductive reasoning, we reason from individual cases or particular facts to reach a general conclusion.
In inductive reasoning, the conclusion is sometimes wrong, even when the premises are correct.
Even though inductive reasoning does not allow us to be certain that our assumptions are correct, we use inductive reasoning all the time.
Most sciences, including psychology, rely on inductive reasoning.

92. How is inductive reasoning different from deductive reasoning?
Check
Contrast
How is inductive reasoning different from deductive reasoning?
Answer: Inductive reasoning moves from specific information to a (sometimes inaccurate) general conclusion; deductive reasoning will always arrive at the correct answer if the premises are true.

93. Weighing Costs and Benefits
Making decisions means choosing among goals or courses of action to reach goals.
When we make decisions, we weigh the pluses and minuses of each possible course of action.
Making a balance sheet can help ensure that all available information has been considered.
A balance sheet can also be helpful when a person is making a decision between two or more alternatives.

95. What is one method for making good decisions?
Check
Recall
What is one method for making good decisions?
Answer: weighing costs and benefits

96. Shortcuts in Decision Making
The Availability Heuristic
The availability heuristic can help people make decisions on the basis of available information in their immediate consciousness.
The Representativeness Heuristic
Based on the representativeness heuristic, people make decisions about a sample according to the population that the sample appears to represent.
The representativeness heuristic can be misleading.

98. The Anchoring Heuristic
The anchoring heuristic is the process of making decisions based on certain ideas or standards held by the decision maker.
Family traditions, political beliefs, religion, and ways of life are common anchors.

99. What are three shortcuts in decision making?
Check
Identify Main Ideas
What are three shortcuts in decision making?
Answer: availability heuristic, representativeness heuristic, anchoring heuristic

100. Wernicke’s Aphasia: Broca’s Aphasia: Therapy: Review of disorders:
Word Salad:
Wernicke’s Aphasia:
Broca’s Aphasia:
Therapy:

101. Lab: Applying What You’ve Learned DUE MONDAY
Children, Thinking, and Language
Help new parents understand how their child will think, solve problems, and use language in these processes.
You will create a pamphlet designed to help parents understand how their children think and solve problems and the importance of language in this process.
1. Introduction
Focus on concerns parents have about how well their children will acquire language and use language to think.
Focus on steps parents can take to ensure their children develop language skills.
2. Conducting Your Research –

102. Lab (con’t.) Share your expertise with your group members.
Include the following:
Name of your topic
Important terms and concepts related to your topic
How your topic is important
Examples of how your topic works
3. Sharing Your Expertise
Your pamphlet must have five sections, one for each topic, plus a cover with a title, your name, and a graphic or illustration.
Each section must include:
Three to five sentences or bullet points
At least two terms related to the topic
An example
A graphic or illustration
4. Making the Pamphlet –

103. Lab (con’t.) Exchange pamphlets with another group.
Review the new pamphlet.
Note information you did not include in your own pamphlet.
Look at the examples and illustrations.
5. Exchange Pamphlets
Hold a group discussion about:
Overall success of lab
The topics, examples, and illustrations
How parents might use the information
Challenges in problem-solving
How language might change during your lifetime
6. Discussion –

104. The Matchstick Problem
Solution to the matchstick problem

105. The Three-Jugs Problem
Solution: a) All seven problems can be solved by the equation shown in (a): B - A - 2C = desired volume.
b) But simpler solutions exist for problems 6 and 7, such as A - C for problem 6.

106. The Candle-Mounting Problem
Solving this problem requires recognizing that a box need not always serve as a container